Evaluation Of Online Encyclopaedias English Language Essay

Assessment Of Online Encyclopedias English Language Essay This report assesses the abilities of three online Encyclopedias: Wikipedia, Free Online Encyclopedia Britannica and Encyclopedia Americana. The assessment depends on the APPARATUS evaluation strategy that are given loads as per their relative significance to look through abilities, substance , utilized materials references qualifications of author(s). The Encyclopedias are evaluated dependent on these the APPARATUS appraisal and the appraisals classified toward the finish of the report to encourage correlation. 2. Presentation In this report, we assessed the APPARATUS appraisal of three online Encyclopedias : Wikipedia, Free Online Encyclopedia Britannica and Encyclopedia Americana. The assessment center around the accompanying standards: , Authority Objectivity 2) Purpose 3) Physical Production 4) Arrangement 5) Recency 6) Accuracy 7) Treatment 8) Users 9) Scope These standards were gauged by their relative significance to APPARATUS appraisal . Appraisals from 1 to 4 were allocated to separate highlights and organized. Wikipedia Wikipedia is an online free-content reference book that clients can alter and add to.  Jimmy Wales, wikipedia fellow benefactor, has articulated Wikipedia as a push to make and disperse a multilingual free reference book of the highest caliber to everyone on earth in their own language. Wikipedia is to carry information to each and every individual who looks for it. Britannica Encyclopã ¦dia Britannica has been the universes most esteemed reference hotspot for more than two centuries. Today Britannica gives an assortment of items, proposed to fit various clients needs.If clients need the full 32-volume Encyclopã ¦dia Britannica, a reference book for more youthful clients, or instructive showing materials, Britannica furnishes a suitable asset with highlights and improvements. Reference book Americana History of the U.S is one of the biggest general reference books in the English language. Following the obtaining of Grolier in 2000, the reference book has been created by Scholastic. It has articles on common and definite sciences, on building and financial matters, notwithstanding on isolated works of writing, music, and workmanship. Numerous articles in the reference book are composed from hostile to Marxist and against socialist perspectives. Generally speaking it contains educational articles, however there are likewise examination articles frequently about discrete nations and hundreds of years for instance, the articles The eighteenth Century and The twentieth Century. Authority and Objectivity Wikipedia Wikipedia is an online free-content reference book that clients can alter and add to. Jimmy Wales, wikipedia fellow benefactor, has articulated Wikipedia as a push to make and disseminate a multilingual free reference book of the highest caliber to everyone on earth in their own language. Wikipedia is to carry information to each and every individual who looks for it. Wikipedia articles are on the whole free substance and their content is secured by the Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA) and by and large the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL). The Wikimedia Foundation doesn't possess copyright on Wikipedia article writings and delineations. It is purposeless to email our contact delivers requesting endorsement to duplicate articles or pictures, regardless of whether rules at clients organization or school or association request that client ask site administrators before replicating their substance. The main Wikipedia content clients should cont act the Wikimedia Foundation about is the trademarked Wikipedia/Wikimedia logos, which won't be uninhibitedly usable without authorization. Wikipedia is accessible in dialects other than English. Wikipedia has in excess of 200 and eighty dialects, including a Simple English form, and related tasks incorporate a word reference, books, and logical reference sources, citations manuals and a news administration (see sister ventures). These are kept up, refreshed, and oversaw by independent networks, and frequently incorporate data and articles that can be elusive through other regular sources. Britannica The publication load up is sorted out in excess of 4,000 master benefactors, and the articles are composed and ceaselessly refreshed by a hundred full time editors. The writers, compilers, and editors are originating from various foundations like Nobel Laureates or Pulitzer Prize victors, anticipating authors, craftsmen, government workers, researchers and activists. A few donors in the record of the Britannica incorporate Freud, Russell, Marie Curie, Einstein, Huxley and Shaw. These days, the benefactors are educators and space specialists in explicit territories from Oxford, Harvard, Yale, University of Chicago and other trustworthy colleges. A few patrons presented their own negative sentiment on subjects, for example, Hinduism with the goal that the articles on Britannica have some social predisposition. A statement of the eleventh version will better assist with understanding these predispositions. The ninth release onwards, the Britannica was generally considered to have the be st authority of any broad English language reference books particularly in view of its expansive inclusion and unmistakable or exceptional writers. Reference book Americana All articles are marked by the writer, a main expert in his/her field, picked by a group of editors and consultants. Yankee folklore is one of the biggest general reference books in the English language. This arrangement has in excess of 45000 articles, the majority of them in excess of 500 words and many hurrying to significant length (the United States article is more than 300,000 words). The works inclusion of American and Canadian topography and history has been a conventional quality. The Encyclopedia Americana is composed by more than 6000 givers, and most articles are marked by their patrons. Disputable subjects are incorporated with a few references for fetus removal, vagrancy, and homosexuality. The editors have made progress toward a reasonable and target perspective on all themes. Reason Wikipedia Wikipedias reason for existing is to profit perusers by going about as a reference book, a far reaching composed abridgment that remembers data for all parts of information. The objective of Wikipedia is to assemble a free reference book; to be sure, the biggest reference book ever, as far as broadness as well as far as profundity and furthermore need Wikipedia to be a dependable asset. The reason for a reference book is to accumulate information spread the world over; to communicate its general framework to the men with whom we live, and communicate it to the individuals who will come after us, so crafted by earlier hundreds of years won't become futile to the hundreds of years to come; thus that our kids, getting better trained, will simultaneously turn out to be progressively commendable and glad, and that wiki can't pass on without having offered a support to mankind. Numerous guests come to Wikipedia to obtain information, while others come to share information. Right now, many articles are being prevalent, and new articles are additionally being made. Britannica The reason for the online reference book Britannica is to be a great reference and to give scholarly materials to understudies and scientists. For scholarly foundations, libraries, and organizations, Britannica gives Encyclopã ¦dia Britannica Online, an abundance of trusted, wide-extending assets planned particularly for genuine scientists. This broadly differed set of ground-breaking assets makes Encyclopã ¦dia Britannica Online a basic expansion to each scholarly, corporate, and research library. Encyclopã ¦dia Britannica Online School Edition presents Britannicas eminent instructive assets in an understudy inviting and connecting with webpage structured particularly for instructors and basic, center, and secondary school understudies. This one of a kind asset unites three encyclopaediasEncyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Britannica Student Encyclopedia, and Britannica Elementary Encyclopaediato address the issues of an assortment of understanding levels. Moreover, a segment explicitly for educators gives worksheets to help viable utilization of the Internet in the study hall. Reference book Americana The corporate reason for Scholastic is to energize the scholarly and self-improvement everything being equal, starting with proficiency, the foundation of all learning. Just as over 90 years of experience supporting the learning lives of kids, today Scholastic stays focused on giving quality, connecting with instructive substance in computerized and print designs for the up and coming age of students, and the families and teachers who control them. This reference book is expected for use as a general reference asset in schools, universities, and open libraries. No American inclination is recognized. Physical creation Wikipedia With respect to the biggest Wikipedia, which is the English variant, it incorporates around 3.8 million articles. Every one of these archives are just in electronic arrangement. Another element of the tool compartment is the Printable adaptation. Use it at whatever point clients need to print articles for a printer-accommodating form of the article. Programs (eg.Mozilla Firefox or Internet Explore) that will be acquainted with the media print will consequently apply the printable form when printing with the default Mono book template. There are in excess of 8000 dynamic donors dealing with in excess of 19 million articles which is an extremely huge number of articles. It can contrast with another undertaking by the fellow benefactor of Wikipedia called Citizendum. Its the short for of resident abstract and is another online reference book venture with more tight altering rules and higher unwavering quality because of a nearby collaboration among writers and editors. This implies Citi zendum contains increasingly solid data yet way less substance (around 16 thousand articles). Britannica Britannica normally prints another arrangement of the tomes at regular intervals, yet 2010s 32-volume set will be its last. Rather, the organization will concentrate just on its computerized reference book and instruction apparatuses. The online rendition of the encyclopae

Social, economic and cultural factors

Depict the social, monetary and social factors that will affect on the lives of There are numerous social, financial and social factors that will affect on the lives of the kids and youngsters that we may work with. Individual decision †Some families conclude that they don't wish to live or act in a manner by which is seen from the outside the ‘ accepted practice for instance being a voyaging family or a youngster having same sexual orientations parents.If a Child is from a voyaging family here is a likelihood that their advancement at school might be postponed due to being moved from school to class. Kids additionally settle on close to home decisions. The decisions they make can significantly affect their life and advancement. On the off chance that youngsters don't have support from carers they won't have rules set and might have the option to do what they need, for example, medications, smoking and drinking. This will immensely affect on their life.Children should be s upported or be given direction on their life, it is significant for youngsters to have great good examples throughout their life Poverty †People are poor for some reasons, it could be down to medication and liquor ependency, family breakdown, poor child rearing, or a culture of worklessness. Experiencing childhood in neediness implies being cool, going hungry, not having the option to Join in exercises with companions or having the option to manage the cost of after school clubs and so forth. Families living in destitution are twice as prone to live in awful lodging which effectsly affects both their physical and psychological well-being, just as instructive achievement.Families that live in neediness are bound to endure mental and physical issues. Lodging and network †Children that live in Overcrowded, low quality and poor lodging circumstances, I. e. that is clammy, has shape or potentially invaded can negatively affect a youngster or youngster's turn of events however p articularly their wellbeing. Kids living in these conditions are bound to have respiratory issues, to be in danger of diseases, and have psychological well-being problems.Living in these conditions additionally influences a kid's capacity to realize, which can lastingly affect a youngster's odds of prevailing throughout everyday life. â€Å"Poor lodging conditions increment the danger of extreme sick wellbeing or incapacity by up to 25% during youth and early adulthood. † (Shelter flyer) In territories where kids and youngsters are xposed to testing and hostile to social conduct, this also can have a negative impact themselves to get themselves far from the difficult and against social conduct, this can influence social development.Some families that show culpable or testing against social conduct, may wind up with their kids being taken into care or going into jail. Instructive condition †A non-managed instructive office may make a domain for a kid that doesn't address a youngster's issues, hence hindering a kid's formative potential. Having a connecting with condition will make a youngster need to ork. In the event that a situation is dull and exhausting a youngster won't have any desire to learn and will lose interest.Health status †Children that are unwell may invest a great deal of energy in emergency clinic or going to medical clinic arrangements, this will affect the kid's advancement since they miss school or pre-school, this can influence training on all parts of improvement, for example, enthusiastic and social viewpoints, making kinships and so on. Having asthma may mean you can't play outside for whatever length of time that other youngsters meaning you might be singled out for being ‘lazy. Being taking drugs can make you languid thus ffect on your school work and concentration.Having time off school can likewise influence their social aptitudes as they aren't investing a lot of energy around kids their own age. There are som e more established youngsters that care for guardians that are sick, this is an enormous effect on the youngster public activity and a ton of obligation at such a youthful age. Handicap †if there is a parent or a youngster in the family that has an inability, this could influence the family particularly if the kid is utilized as a carer for their parents.In a few cases rest care might be required for families with relatives that are impaired nd this can cause family interruptions and irregularity in a youngster's consideration particularly if the relief care is for overnight visits from home. While a kid or relative is accepting help for a medical problem this might influence progression of care, training, advancement and salary. Addictions †Children that live with grown-ups that are addicts might be depended upon by the grown-ups now and again to be their fundamental carer.At times these youngsters may feel detached and incapable to mention to individuals what they are en countering at home, they may encounter unpleasant circumstances and might be living in the destitution that the grown-ups that are upposed to be thinking about them have caused. In some circumstance where a small kid is enduring maltreatment or disregard they would be taken into care. Mourning and misfortune †If a family loses an individual from the family or a dear companion this could influence the psychological and thus physical wellbeing of a family.Adults that have lost their accomplices may locate the enthusiastic strain hard to adapt to and may then think that its progressively hard to think about other youngsters in the family. Family desires and consolation †Many guardians have distinctive child rearing styles and can offer various degrees of help to their kids. A large number of these child rearing styles will in general fluctuate between various societies. On the off chance that a youngster is dependent upon irregularity and an absence of help this thus could pr ompt a kid enduring low help their kids they can have low certainty and low confidence and here and there an adjustment in conduct, looking for attention.When an excess of weight is put on somebody to do well this can bring about them getting pushed and scared of disappointment. Families may have struggle among guardians and youngsters. This will affect on their lives as they need to invest a ton of energy around family and on the off chance that they don't care for them it will be hard. With separated from families, kids may invest energy going among guardians thus don't have the opportunity to focus on their school work. The parent they live with may likewise take out the entirety of their weight on the child.If a guardians has kicked the bucket the kid may feel extremely discouraged and not focus on their school work. Strict convictions and customs †Has the possibility to impact numerous parts of improvement, as it impacts a kid's (and grown-ups) perspective, dietary needs, apparel, how regularly they are taken to comply with their convictions, which may bring about them passing up a major opportunity at school, pre-school, clubs and so forth. A strict lifestyle can be transmitted among ages and grandparents keep up a noteworthy impact. A few guardians consider going to be their confidence as a significant piece of parenting.A strict personality at home can unquestionably cause confliction with different weights on their kids, remembering contrary depictions of religion for the media. Ethnic convictions and customs †Ethnic misrepresents and customs can likewise influence a youngster's dress, traditions, dietary needs, training and different parts of their lives. Numerous youths from non-English talking foundations face the test of managing ith the undertakings of pre-adulthood while growing up between two societies †with two dialects as well as frequently altogether different conduct and social expectations.There might be extraordinary variet y in social qualities and standards in regards to the focal errands of youthfulness â€, for example, building up a feeling of personality and freedom. Youngsters may have various types of clothing, making them be prodded or harassed. Their way of life may see association among people in an alternate manner and the youngster will battle to perceive what is worthy at school as it varies to ome. This could make them collide with school rules or to be seen as a difficulty maker.Marginalisation and rejection †underestimation and avoidance can occur for an assortment of reasons like, being poor, jobless, family status, victimized, or being crippled by a general public that won't work around the issues of hindrance; they all carry with them the danger of prohibition. Being prohibited from financial, social and political methods for advancing one's self-assurance can have unfavorable impacts for people and networks the same.

Recall the President - Why You Cant Recall a President

Review the President - Why You Can't Recall a President Having regretsâ about your decision in favor of president? Sorry. Theres no mulligan. The U.S. Constitution doesn't take into consideration the review of a president outside of the reprimand procedure or evacuation of a president who is regarded to be unfit for office under the 25th Amendment. Truth be told, there are no political review components accessible to voters at the government level by any stretch of the imagination; voters cannot review individuals from Congress, either. In at any rate 19 states they can, notwithstanding, review chose authorities serving in state and neighborhood positions. Those states incorporate Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, North Dakota, Oregon, Rhode Island, Washington, and Wisconsin. Saying this doesn't imply that there has never been help for a review procedure at the government level. Indeed, a U.S. representative from New Jersey proposed a protected alteration in 1951 that would have permitted voters to review a president by holding a subsequent political race to fix the first. Congress never affirmed the measure, yet the thought lives on. After the 2016 presidential political decision, a few voters who may have thought again or who were frustrated that Donald Trump lost the mainstream vote yet at the same time crushed Hillary Clinton attempted to dispatch a request to review the tycoon land designer. Its absolutely impossible for voters to organize a political review of the president, not Trump, who produced loads of discussion and had various irreconcilable situations. There is no component gone ahead in the U.S. Constitution that considers the evacuation of a bombing president put something aside for prosecution, which is restricted for occasions of horrific acts and wrongdoings and not just the impulses of voters or individuals from Congress.â Backing For Recall of a President To give you some thought of how common purchasers regret is in American legislative issues, consider the instance of President Barack Obama. In spite of the fact that he effortlessly won a second term in the White House, a significant number of the individuals who helped choose him again in 2012 told surveyors a brief timeframe later they would bolster a push to review him if such a move were allowed. The study, led by the Harvard University Institute of Politics in late 2013, found a dominant part of youthful Americans (52 percent) would have casted a ballot to review Obama at the time the survey was taken. Generally a similar bit of respondents likewise would have casted a ballot to review each and every individual from Congress, including each of the 435 individuals from the House of Representatives. There are, obviously, various online petitions that spring up every now and then approaching the evacuation of the president by implies other than impeachment. On the site Petition2Congress, for instance, voters were approached to sign a request to review Obama before the finish of his subsequent term. One such appeal to Congress states: On the off chance that you don't follow up on denunciation procedures on our present president and his organization, at that point we the individuals, deferentially request a review on President Barack Hussein Obama. We are disappointed with the counter opportunity, hostile to protected, and the demonstrations of conspiracy actualized by this organization and furthermore request a full criminal examination concerning Operation Fast Furious, Benghazi, the 900 excutive requests, the presidents own sequestration, and the sixteen trillion dollar national obligation. On the site Change.org, there were endeavors to review Trump even before he was sworn into office.â The request expressed: Trump was directly around a certain something; this electionâ wasâ rigged, butâ hesâ the one who fixed it, much as individual Republican Scott Walker did to winâ hisâ five terms in office.  Hillary Clinton won the famous vote. Trumps backing by Russia, Saudi Arabia, criminal programmers, and American fear based oppressor bunches bargain the very security of the United States of America, and that of the residents. We have the point of reference, and whatever the result, we will NEVER recognize Donald J. Trump as our Commander-In-Chief. How theRecall of a President Would Work There have been a few thoughts skimmed for reviewing a president; one would begin with the electorate and another would begin with Congress and stream back to voters for approval.â In a report he calls the 21st Century Constitution, review advocate Barry Krusch spreads out designs for a National Recall, which would take into consideration the question â€Å"Should the President be recalled?† to be put on the general political race voting form if enough Americans get tired of their leader. On the off chance that a dominant part of voters choose to review the president under his arrangement, the VP would dominate. In the essay When Presidents Become Weak, distributed in the 2010 book Profiles in Leadership: Historians on the Elusive Quality of Greatness altered by Walter Isaacson, historian Robert Dallek proposes a review procedure that starts in the House and Senate. Writes Dallek: â€Å"The nation needs to consider a sacred alteration that would enable voters to review a bombing president. Since political adversaries would consistently be enticed to summon the arrangements of a review strategy, it would should be both hard to practice and an away from of the famous will. The procedure should start in Congress, where a review methodology would require a 60 percent vote in the two houses. This could be trailed by a national submission on whether all voters in the past presidential political decision wished to expel the president and VP and supplant them with the Speaker of the House of Representatives and a VP of that person’s choosing.† Such a change, truth be told, was proposed in 1951 by Republican U.S. Sen. Robert C. Hendrickson of New Jersey. The legislator looked for endorsement for such a change after President Harry Truman fired General Douglas MacArthur in the Korean War. Wrote Hendrickson: â€Å"This country is looked during circumstances such as the present with such quickly changing conditions and such basic choices that we can't bear to rely on an Administration which had lost the certainty of the American people†¦Ã‚ We have had sufficient proof throughout the years that chosen agents, particularly those with extraordinary force, can without much of a stretch fall into the trap of accepting that their will is a higher priority than the desire of the people.†Ã¢ Hendrickson inferred that â€Å"impeachment has demonstrated neither appropriate nor desirable.†Ã‚ His arrangement would have considered a review vote when 66% of the states felt the president had lost the help of residents.

Pornography Should Be Free

Sex entertainment Should Be Free from Government Control Essay Regardless of whether one feels emphatically about the review, making and dissemination of erotic entertainment by consenting grown-ups, one can't contend that sex isn’t all over the place. Clear in recordings, films, pictures, and notices, it’s a reality that sex sells. Who is to state that since erotic entertainment can be seen effectively from numerous points of view, that it’s not an awful thing? However in the talk of sex entertainment all in all, where does ethical quality and cash become possibly the most important factor? To whatever degree sex entertainment is viewed as improper; everybody ought to be entitled their own scholarly opportunity. The legislature has made a few stages so as to confine the spread of erotic entertainment, yet it is obvious that little should be possible to at last influence it. In 1968, the Supreme Court instance of Ginsberg v. New York held that the legislature can legitimately disallow kids from getting to particular sorts of explicitly express material, a similar material that can’t be prohibited for grown-ups. Despite the fact that the Supreme Court decided that a minor doesn't have the sacred right to a similar substance as a grown-up, the errand of limiting substance on the web is insecure, because of the trouble of recognizing grown-ups from kids. In 1973, an after Supreme Court case, Miller v. California, set up the marvel of â€Å"variable tolerance†. Leaving a variable resistance existing for unequivocal material, the Supreme Court permitted networks to choose what was revolting or indecent. Various degrees of resilience of erotic entertainment from network to network could be an effective framework if truth be told, sex entertainment circulation can be restricted network by network. Since individuals are portable and the web is sans limit, the administration can't viably confine its accessibility to everybody (and conceivably to anybody). Another outstanding legal dispute associated with erotic entertainment was the 1982 case, Ferber v. New York. This case essentially tended to all material demonstrating a ‘sexual performance’ by a kid younger than 16, as vulgar. It characterized a sexual presentation as, â€Å"actual or recreated sex, digress sex, sexual savagery, masturbation, sado-masochistic maltreatment, or indecent show of the genitals.† It’s a government offense to intentionally get youngster erotic entertainment. As indicated by the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions, â€Å"intellectual opportunity is the privilege of each individual both to hold and express feelings and to look for and get information.† The opportunity of a grown-up to see erotic entertainment including different grown-ups isn't generally perceived as a recreational action, predominantly in light of the fact that it is despised upon in numerous religions. Indeed, even most of parental figures on the planet appear to disparage erotic entertainment when raising their childhood. However nobody truly ventures back and asks, why precisely is sex entertainment unethical? One of the significant contentions towards erotic entertainment being corrupt is that in numerous explicit delineations, individuals (generally ladies) appear to be exploited for a viewer’s joy. The main distinction between an African American lady assuming a job as a slave in the common war period, an African American lady presenting in shackle-like arm bands in a thin jean commercial, and an African American lady in an obscene film, is that each extraordinary job requires certain gifts and understandings that meet up so as to engage a crowd of people. Improper or not, explicit material is just another approach to bring in cash. It’s seen or referenced to in numerous promotions, and it’s hard to track down a â€Å"R† appraised film with out at any rate one bareness scene. Indeed, sex sells. Any place there is request, there will be flexibly, and the insights behind web sex entertainment are to some degree faltering. As indicated by Information Science teacher and scientist, Paul F Burton, â€Å"47% of the 11,000 most well known hunts on the Internet are focused towards pornography.† The cash part of erotic entertainment is practically boundless. There are over 1.5 million web clients seeing erotic entertainment consistently. From that crowd, $3,075.64 is gone through on erotic entertainment each second, and at regular intervals, another explicit video is made in the United States alone. The market for erotic entertainment is tremendous.

The History of Depression and Treatment

The History of Depression and Treatment Depression Causes Print The History of Depression Accounts, treatments, and beliefs through the ages By Nancy Schimelpfening Nancy Schimelpfening, MS is the administrator for the non-profit depression support group Depression Sanctuary. Nancy has a lifetime of experience with depression, experiencing firsthand how devastating this illness can be. Learn about our editorial policy Nancy Schimelpfening Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on October 27, 2014 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on February 04, 2020 Depression Overview Types Symptoms Causes & Risk Factors Diagnosis Treatment Coping ADA & Your Rights Depression in Kids De Agostini / Archivio J. Lange / Getty Images In This Article Table of Contents Expand Earliest Accounts Ancient Beliefs Common Era 18th and 19th Centuries Recent Beliefs Treatments in Recent Past Understanding Today View All While no single person can be credited with the discovery of depression, there have been a whole series of great thinkers who have contributedâ€"and continue to contributeâ€"to our growing understanding of just what this illness really is. In order to better understand how researchers, doctors, and psychologists think about this condition today, it can be helpful to take a look back at the history of depression. Earliest Accounts of Depression The earliest written accounts of what is now known as depression appeared in the second millennium B.C.E. in Mesopotamia. In these writings, depression was discussed as a spiritual rather than a physical condition. Like other mental illnesses, it was believed to be caused by demonic possession. As such, it was dealt with by priests rather than physicians.?? The idea of depression being caused by demons and evil spirits has existed in many cultures, including those of the ancient Greeks, Romans, Babylonians, Chinese, and Egyptians. Because of this belief, it was often treated with methods such as beatings, physical restraint, and starvation in an attempt to drive the demons out. While many believed that demons were the root cause of depression, there were a number of ancient Greek and Roman doctors who believed that depression was a biological and psychological illness. Greek and Roman doctors used therapeutic methods such as gymnastics, massage, diet, music, baths, and a medication containing poppy extract and donkeys milk to treat their patients.??? An Overview of Clinical Depression Ancient Beliefs in Physical Causes of Depression As far as physical causes, a Greek physician named Hippocrates is credited with the idea that depression, or melancholia as it was known then, was caused by an imbalance in four body fluids, called humors: yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood.?? Specifically, melancholia was attributed to an excess of black bile in the spleen. Hippocrates treatments of choice included bloodletting, baths, exercise, and diet. A Roman philosopher and statesman named Cicero, in contrast, believed that melancholia had psychological causes such as rage, fear, and grief.   In the last years before the common era, in spite of some steps toward believing in more physical and mental causes of depression, it was still a very common belief among even educated Romans that depression and other mental illnesses were caused by demons and by the anger of the gods. Depression Causes and Treatment in the Common Era During the common era, many barbaric and primitive treatments for depression continued to be the norm. Cornelius Celsus (25 BCE to 50 CE) reportedly recommended the very harsh treatments of starvation, shackles, and beating in cases of mental illness.?? A Persian doctor named Rhazes (865â€"925 CE), however, did see mental illness as arising from the brain and recommended such treatments as baths and a very early form of behavior therapy which involved positive rewards for appropriate behavior. During the Middle Ages, religion, especially Christianity, dominated European thinking on mental illness, with people again attributing it to the devil, demons, or witches. Exorcisms, drowning, and burning were popular treatments of the time. Many people were locked up in so-called lunatic asylums. While some doctors continued to seek physical causes for depression and other mental illnesses, they were in the minority. During the Renaissance, which began in 14th century Italy and spread throughout Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, witch hunts and executions of the mentally ill were still quite common; however, some doctors were revisiting the idea of mental illness having a natural rather than a supernatural cause. In the year 1621, Robert Burton published a book called Anatomy of Melancholy  in which he outlined both social and psychological causes of depression such as poverty, fear, and loneliness. In this volume, he made recommendations like diet, exercise, travel, purgatives (to clear toxins from the body), bloodletting, herbs, and music therapy in the treatment of depression.?? The 18th and 19th Centuries During the 18th and 19th centuries, also called the Age of Enlightenment, depression came to be viewed as a weakness in temperament that was inherited and could not be changed. The result of these beliefs was that people with this condition should be shunned or locked up. During the latter part of the Age of Enlightenment, doctors began to suggest the idea that aggression was at the root of the condition.?? Treatments such as exercise, diet, music,  and drugs were now advocated and doctors suggested that it was important to talk about your problems with your friends or a doctor. Other doctors of the time spoke of depression as resulting from internal conflicts between what you want and what you know is right. And yet others sought to identify the physical causes of this condition. Depression treatments during the Age of Enlightenment included water immersion (people were kept underwater for long as possible without drowning) and a spinning stool to induce dizziness, which was believed to put the brain contents back into their correct positions. Benjamin Franklin is also reported to have developed an early form of electroshock therapy during this time.??? In addition, horseback riding, diet changes, enemas, and vomiting were recommended treatments. Modern Treatments for Depression Recent Beliefs About Depression In 1895, the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin became the first to distinguish manic depression, what we now know as bipolar disorder, as an illness separate from dementia praecox (the term for schizophrenia at the time).??  Around this same time, psychodynamic theory and  psychoanalysisâ€"the type of psychotherapy based on this theoryâ€"were developed. Psychoanalytic Explanations In 1917, Sigmund Freud wrote about mourning and melancholia where he theorized about melancholia as being a response to loss, either real (for example, a death) or symbolic (such as failure to achieve the desired goal). Freud further believed that a persons unconscious anger over their loss leads to self-hatred and self-destructive behavior. He felt that psychoanalysis could help a person resolve these unconscious conflicts, reducing self-destructive thoughts and behaviors.?? Other doctors during this time, however, saw depression as a brain disorder. Behavioral Explanations The behaviorist movement in psychology contributed to the idea that behaviors are learned through experience. The behaviorists rejected the idea that depression was caused by unconscious forces and instead suggested that it was a learned behavior. Just as these depressive behaviors had been learned, they could also be unlearned. Principles of learning such as association and reinforcement could be used to establish and strengthen more effective, healthier behaviors. While psychologists today recognize that experience is not the sole determinant of behavior, behaviorism led to the development of a number of treatment approaches that continue to play an important role in the treatment of depression and other mental disorders. Cognitive Explanations During the 1960s and 1970s, cognitive theories of depression began to emerge. The cognitive theorist Aaron Beck proposed that the way that people interpret negative events could contribute to symptoms of depression. Beck suggested that negative automatic thoughts, negative self-beliefs, and errors in processing information were responsible for depressive symptoms.   According to Beck, depressed people tend to automatically interpret events in negative ways and view themselves and helpless and inadequate.?? The psychologist Martin Seligman suggested that learned helplessness could play a role in the development of depression. According to this theory, people often give up on trying to change their situation because they feel that nothing they do will make a difference. This lack of control leaves people feeling helpless and hopeless.?? The emergence of these cognitive models of depression played an important role in the development of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which has been shown to be effective in the treatment of depression. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Depression Biological and Medical Explanations Where older conceptualizations of depression stressed the role of early experiences, more recent approaches increasing stress the biopsychosocial model that looks at the biological, psychological, and social factors that play a role in depression. During the 1970s, the medical model of mental disorders emerged and suggested that all mental disorders are primarily caused by physiological factors. The medical model views mental health conditions in the same way as other physical illnesses, which means that such conditions can also be treated with medication. Biological explanations for depression focus on factors such as genetics, brain chemistry, hormones, and brain anatomy.  This view played an important role in the development and increased use of antidepressants in the treatment of depression. How the Medical Model Explains Mental Disorders Treatments for Depression in the Recent Past During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, treatments for severe depression were generally not enough to help patients, leading many people desperate for relief to have lobotomies, which are surgeries to destroy the frontal portion of the brain. These surgeries were reputed to have a calming effect. Unfortunately, lobotomies often caused personality changes, a loss of decision-making ability, poor judgment, and sometimes even led to the patients death.?? Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), which is an electrical shock applied to the scalp in order to induce a seizure, was also sometimes used for patients with depression. During the 1950s and 60s, doctors divided depression into subtypes of endogenous (originating from with the body) and neurotic or reactive (originating from some change in the environment).  Endogenous depression was thought to result from genetics or some other physical defect, while the neurotic or reactive type of depression was believed to be the result of some outside problems such as a death or loss of a job. The 1950s were an important decade in the treatment of depression thanks to the fact that doctors noticed that a tuberculosis medication called isoniazid seemed to be helpful in treating depression in some people.?? Where depression treatment had previously been focused only on psychotherapy, drug therapies now started to be developed and added to the mix. In addition, new schools of thought, such as cognitive-behavioral and family systems theory emerged as alternatives to psychodynamic theory in depression treatment. One of the first drugs to emerge for the treatment of depression was known as Tofranil (imipramine), which was then followed by a number of other medications categorized as tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). Such drugs provided relief for many people with depression but were often accompanied by serious side effects that included weight gain, tiredness, and the potential for overdose.???   Other antidepressants later emerged, including Prozac (fluoxetine) in 1987, Zoloft (sertraline) in 1991, and Paxil (paroxetine) in 1992. These medications, known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), target serotonin levels in the brain and usually have fewer side effects than their predecessors. Newer antidepressant drugs that have emerged in the past couple of decades include atypical antidepressants such as Wellbutrin (bupropion), Trintellix (vortioxetine), and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs).   The 5 Major Classes of Antidepressants Our Understanding of Depression Today The term major depressive disorder (MDD) was first introduced by clinicians in the United States during the 1970s. The condition officially became part of the DSM-III in 1980. The current edition of the diagnostic manual is the DSM-5 and is one of the primary tools used in the diagnosis of depressive disorders.   While the condition is much better understood today than it was in the past, researchers are still working to learn more about the causes of depression. At the present time, doctors believe that depression arises from a combination of multiple causes including biological, psychological, and social factors. Causes and Risk Factors of Depression Modern views of depression incorporate an understanding of the many symptoms of this condition as well as the often cyclical effect that the symptoms can have. For example, depression can cause disturbances in sleep, appetite, and activity levels; in turn, poor sleep, diet, and exercise can exacerbate symptoms of depression.?? In addition to considering the psychological factors that contribute to depression, doctors are also aware that certain medical conditions such as hypothyroidism may cause depressive symptoms. The diagnosis of depression includes ruling out other medical conditions and other possible causes such as alcohol or substance use. How Depression Is Diagnosed With the DSM-5 Thanks to the improved understanding of the causes of depression, effective treatments have emerged. Psychotherapy and medications that target molecules called neurotransmitters are generally the preferred treatments, although electroconvulsive therapy may be utilized in certain instances, such as in treatment-resistant depression or severe cases where immediate relief is required. Other, newer, therapies, including transcranial magnetic stimulation and vagus nerve stimulation, have also been developed in recent years in an attempt to help those who have failed to respond to therapy and medications. Unfortunately, the causes of depression are more complex than we yet understand, with no single treatment providing satisfactory results for everyone. Because depression is such a complex condition, mental health professionals often recommend a treatment approach that includes medications, psychotherapies, and lifestyle modifications. Tips for Living With Depression

The History of Depression and Treatment

The History of Depression and Treatment Depression Causes Print The History of Depression Accounts, treatments, and beliefs through the ages By Nancy Schimelpfening Nancy Schimelpfening, MS is the administrator for the non-profit depression support group Depression Sanctuary. Nancy has a lifetime of experience with depression, experiencing firsthand how devastating this illness can be. Learn about our editorial policy Nancy Schimelpfening Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on October 27, 2014 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on February 04, 2020 Depression Overview Types Symptoms Causes & Risk Factors Diagnosis Treatment Coping ADA & Your Rights Depression in Kids De Agostini / Archivio J. Lange / Getty Images In This Article Table of Contents Expand Earliest Accounts Ancient Beliefs Common Era 18th and 19th Centuries Recent Beliefs Treatments in Recent Past Understanding Today View All While no single person can be credited with the discovery of depression, there have been a whole series of great thinkers who have contributedâ€"and continue to contributeâ€"to our growing understanding of just what this illness really is. In order to better understand how researchers, doctors, and psychologists think about this condition today, it can be helpful to take a look back at the history of depression. Earliest Accounts of Depression The earliest written accounts of what is now known as depression appeared in the second millennium B.C.E. in Mesopotamia. In these writings, depression was discussed as a spiritual rather than a physical condition. Like other mental illnesses, it was believed to be caused by demonic possession. As such, it was dealt with by priests rather than physicians.?? The idea of depression being caused by demons and evil spirits has existed in many cultures, including those of the ancient Greeks, Romans, Babylonians, Chinese, and Egyptians. Because of this belief, it was often treated with methods such as beatings, physical restraint, and starvation in an attempt to drive the demons out. While many believed that demons were the root cause of depression, there were a number of ancient Greek and Roman doctors who believed that depression was a biological and psychological illness. Greek and Roman doctors used therapeutic methods such as gymnastics, massage, diet, music, baths, and a medication containing poppy extract and donkeys milk to treat their patients.??? An Overview of Clinical Depression Ancient Beliefs in Physical Causes of Depression As far as physical causes, a Greek physician named Hippocrates is credited with the idea that depression, or melancholia as it was known then, was caused by an imbalance in four body fluids, called humors: yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood.?? Specifically, melancholia was attributed to an excess of black bile in the spleen. Hippocrates treatments of choice included bloodletting, baths, exercise, and diet. A Roman philosopher and statesman named Cicero, in contrast, believed that melancholia had psychological causes such as rage, fear, and grief.   In the last years before the common era, in spite of some steps toward believing in more physical and mental causes of depression, it was still a very common belief among even educated Romans that depression and other mental illnesses were caused by demons and by the anger of the gods. Depression Causes and Treatment in the Common Era During the common era, many barbaric and primitive treatments for depression continued to be the norm. Cornelius Celsus (25 BCE to 50 CE) reportedly recommended the very harsh treatments of starvation, shackles, and beating in cases of mental illness.?? A Persian doctor named Rhazes (865â€"925 CE), however, did see mental illness as arising from the brain and recommended such treatments as baths and a very early form of behavior therapy which involved positive rewards for appropriate behavior. During the Middle Ages, religion, especially Christianity, dominated European thinking on mental illness, with people again attributing it to the devil, demons, or witches. Exorcisms, drowning, and burning were popular treatments of the time. Many people were locked up in so-called lunatic asylums. While some doctors continued to seek physical causes for depression and other mental illnesses, they were in the minority. During the Renaissance, which began in 14th century Italy and spread throughout Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, witch hunts and executions of the mentally ill were still quite common; however, some doctors were revisiting the idea of mental illness having a natural rather than a supernatural cause. In the year 1621, Robert Burton published a book called Anatomy of Melancholy  in which he outlined both social and psychological causes of depression such as poverty, fear, and loneliness. In this volume, he made recommendations like diet, exercise, travel, purgatives (to clear toxins from the body), bloodletting, herbs, and music therapy in the treatment of depression.?? The 18th and 19th Centuries During the 18th and 19th centuries, also called the Age of Enlightenment, depression came to be viewed as a weakness in temperament that was inherited and could not be changed. The result of these beliefs was that people with this condition should be shunned or locked up. During the latter part of the Age of Enlightenment, doctors began to suggest the idea that aggression was at the root of the condition.?? Treatments such as exercise, diet, music,  and drugs were now advocated and doctors suggested that it was important to talk about your problems with your friends or a doctor. Other doctors of the time spoke of depression as resulting from internal conflicts between what you want and what you know is right. And yet others sought to identify the physical causes of this condition. Depression treatments during the Age of Enlightenment included water immersion (people were kept underwater for long as possible without drowning) and a spinning stool to induce dizziness, which was believed to put the brain contents back into their correct positions. Benjamin Franklin is also reported to have developed an early form of electroshock therapy during this time.??? In addition, horseback riding, diet changes, enemas, and vomiting were recommended treatments. Modern Treatments for Depression Recent Beliefs About Depression In 1895, the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin became the first to distinguish manic depression, what we now know as bipolar disorder, as an illness separate from dementia praecox (the term for schizophrenia at the time).??  Around this same time, psychodynamic theory and  psychoanalysisâ€"the type of psychotherapy based on this theoryâ€"were developed. Psychoanalytic Explanations In 1917, Sigmund Freud wrote about mourning and melancholia where he theorized about melancholia as being a response to loss, either real (for example, a death) or symbolic (such as failure to achieve the desired goal). Freud further believed that a persons unconscious anger over their loss leads to self-hatred and self-destructive behavior. He felt that psychoanalysis could help a person resolve these unconscious conflicts, reducing self-destructive thoughts and behaviors.?? Other doctors during this time, however, saw depression as a brain disorder. Behavioral Explanations The behaviorist movement in psychology contributed to the idea that behaviors are learned through experience. The behaviorists rejected the idea that depression was caused by unconscious forces and instead suggested that it was a learned behavior. Just as these depressive behaviors had been learned, they could also be unlearned. Principles of learning such as association and reinforcement could be used to establish and strengthen more effective, healthier behaviors. While psychologists today recognize that experience is not the sole determinant of behavior, behaviorism led to the development of a number of treatment approaches that continue to play an important role in the treatment of depression and other mental disorders. Cognitive Explanations During the 1960s and 1970s, cognitive theories of depression began to emerge. The cognitive theorist Aaron Beck proposed that the way that people interpret negative events could contribute to symptoms of depression. Beck suggested that negative automatic thoughts, negative self-beliefs, and errors in processing information were responsible for depressive symptoms.   According to Beck, depressed people tend to automatically interpret events in negative ways and view themselves and helpless and inadequate.?? The psychologist Martin Seligman suggested that learned helplessness could play a role in the development of depression. According to this theory, people often give up on trying to change their situation because they feel that nothing they do will make a difference. This lack of control leaves people feeling helpless and hopeless.?? The emergence of these cognitive models of depression played an important role in the development of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which has been shown to be effective in the treatment of depression. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Depression Biological and Medical Explanations Where older conceptualizations of depression stressed the role of early experiences, more recent approaches increasing stress the biopsychosocial model that looks at the biological, psychological, and social factors that play a role in depression. During the 1970s, the medical model of mental disorders emerged and suggested that all mental disorders are primarily caused by physiological factors. The medical model views mental health conditions in the same way as other physical illnesses, which means that such conditions can also be treated with medication. Biological explanations for depression focus on factors such as genetics, brain chemistry, hormones, and brain anatomy.  This view played an important role in the development and increased use of antidepressants in the treatment of depression. How the Medical Model Explains Mental Disorders Treatments for Depression in the Recent Past During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, treatments for severe depression were generally not enough to help patients, leading many people desperate for relief to have lobotomies, which are surgeries to destroy the frontal portion of the brain. These surgeries were reputed to have a calming effect. Unfortunately, lobotomies often caused personality changes, a loss of decision-making ability, poor judgment, and sometimes even led to the patients death.?? Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), which is an electrical shock applied to the scalp in order to induce a seizure, was also sometimes used for patients with depression. During the 1950s and 60s, doctors divided depression into subtypes of endogenous (originating from with the body) and neurotic or reactive (originating from some change in the environment).  Endogenous depression was thought to result from genetics or some other physical defect, while the neurotic or reactive type of depression was believed to be the result of some outside problems such as a death or loss of a job. The 1950s were an important decade in the treatment of depression thanks to the fact that doctors noticed that a tuberculosis medication called isoniazid seemed to be helpful in treating depression in some people.?? Where depression treatment had previously been focused only on psychotherapy, drug therapies now started to be developed and added to the mix. In addition, new schools of thought, such as cognitive-behavioral and family systems theory emerged as alternatives to psychodynamic theory in depression treatment. One of the first drugs to emerge for the treatment of depression was known as Tofranil (imipramine), which was then followed by a number of other medications categorized as tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). Such drugs provided relief for many people with depression but were often accompanied by serious side effects that included weight gain, tiredness, and the potential for overdose.???   Other antidepressants later emerged, including Prozac (fluoxetine) in 1987, Zoloft (sertraline) in 1991, and Paxil (paroxetine) in 1992. These medications, known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), target serotonin levels in the brain and usually have fewer side effects than their predecessors. Newer antidepressant drugs that have emerged in the past couple of decades include atypical antidepressants such as Wellbutrin (bupropion), Trintellix (vortioxetine), and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs).   The 5 Major Classes of Antidepressants Our Understanding of Depression Today The term major depressive disorder (MDD) was first introduced by clinicians in the United States during the 1970s. The condition officially became part of the DSM-III in 1980. The current edition of the diagnostic manual is the DSM-5 and is one of the primary tools used in the diagnosis of depressive disorders.   While the condition is much better understood today than it was in the past, researchers are still working to learn more about the causes of depression. At the present time, doctors believe that depression arises from a combination of multiple causes including biological, psychological, and social factors. Causes and Risk Factors of Depression Modern views of depression incorporate an understanding of the many symptoms of this condition as well as the often cyclical effect that the symptoms can have. For example, depression can cause disturbances in sleep, appetite, and activity levels; in turn, poor sleep, diet, and exercise can exacerbate symptoms of depression.?? In addition to considering the psychological factors that contribute to depression, doctors are also aware that certain medical conditions such as hypothyroidism may cause depressive symptoms. The diagnosis of depression includes ruling out other medical conditions and other possible causes such as alcohol or substance use. How Depression Is Diagnosed With the DSM-5 Thanks to the improved understanding of the causes of depression, effective treatments have emerged. Psychotherapy and medications that target molecules called neurotransmitters are generally the preferred treatments, although electroconvulsive therapy may be utilized in certain instances, such as in treatment-resistant depression or severe cases where immediate relief is required. Other, newer, therapies, including transcranial magnetic stimulation and vagus nerve stimulation, have also been developed in recent years in an attempt to help those who have failed to respond to therapy and medications. Unfortunately, the causes of depression are more complex than we yet understand, with no single treatment providing satisfactory results for everyone. Because depression is such a complex condition, mental health professionals often recommend a treatment approach that includes medications, psychotherapies, and lifestyle modifications. Tips for Living With Depression

Sociological Perspectives Dealing with Substance Abuse - Free Essay Example

Substance abuse is a huge part of society. People hear about or see the abuse of drugs all the time, on the new, social media, and in public. A functionalist would view substance abuse as a basic function for multiple different levels in society to survive and live. With substance abuse, there will be a lot of conflict because of people abusing prescription drugs. There is also symbolism used when it comes to substance abuse. Using these perspectives, it helps people understand substance abuse.   The first sociological perspective is functionalism. This was originally made by ?†°mile Durkheim. With this perspective, it shows society as multiple different parts that all are needed for something to function or work properly. An easy example of functionalism would be the human body or even a computer system. Everything in these systems is needed to function, if one thing is missing or goes out then the whole thing starts to shut down or have problems. When you look at functionalism and substance abuse it helps people understand the different parts it needs to function. It helps people who dont abuse substances know how it works and functions. Addiction is increasingly understood as a brain disease, many aspects of the problem that impinge on individual and community wellbeing are rooted in society, culture, and politics, and have changed over time (Herzberg et al., 2016:408). Substance abuse helps a lot of people in society. It helps the people selling and making the drugs get the profit they need from it. It makes the user have the high or satisfaction they want out of it., and it is giving jobs to people like police officers who are trying to stop or control it. All of these are needed to make substance abuse a function in society. The second perspective is the conflict theory which was made by Karl Marks. This perspective states that there is some sort of conflict that has come about because of limited resources. This theory sees society as classes having to compete for what they need or want. What they could be competing for could be things they want, what they need to survive, or to be treated equally. No matter how well something is set up there will always be some sort of conflict. With substance abuse there is always conflict, this is because there are always people who have easier access to get the drugs or they need to sell it to make money. Where someone lives, his or her race, age, and background can all tie into why someone abuses substances or has easier access to them. When someone is missing something, gets something taken away, does not have the money, or is treated unequally it can tie into substance abuse because it causes a conflict. Adolescence is the developmental period known for experimentation. Boredom, peer pressure, and curiosity are known culprits in the onset of substance abuse in adolescence. At-risk youth without a resilient constitution fall prey to the prolific environmental influences that saturate communities across the United States (Taylor, 2014:306). This quote shows that kids have an easier access to substance abuse because of everything around them. Kids arent the only ones who go through all of that, adults can and normally do too. There is a lot of conflict with substance abuse because there is always something missing or something that pushes you to it.   The final perspective is symbolic interactionism. This was created by George Herbert Mead. This perspective deals a lot with how people interact with each other every day. Symbolic interactionism looks at objects, behaviors, and symbols. This is very important because it helps to provide an explanation for things we experience. An example of this perspective would be hand gestures, one persons interpretation of a hand gesture will differ from someone else. Substance abuse deals with symbolic interactionism because the drug use normally happens from someone dealing with someone who already uses it. When someone goes through someone who has already used, he or she learns everything he or she needs to, the equipment, how to use it, how people react to it, and the best places to get it. Opiate use was most common among men who had grown up in large US cities, were less well educated and had family histories of drug use, crime, and delinquency (Hall and Weier, 2016:177). This quote shows that people who are around it or live with people who have had the abuse before are more likely to do it because they have already been in a way a part of it, they have interacted with it. People having that interaction makes it easier for them to abuse substances.   In conclusion, it is easy to see that these three perspectives help analyze society easier. Functionalism helps to show how everything is tied together basically the system of how people get the drugs. Conflict theory helps people understand why others abuse substances and how they get to that point. These could not be as strong without symbolic interactionism because it helps give the symbols that makeup substance abuse. All these perspectives are needed to fully understand society.

Principles of Liability in Negligence in Business Activities - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2913 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Research paper Level High school Did you like this example? Assignment 2 of 2 Aspects of Contract and Negligence for Business Ingrida Miseviciute Table of Contents Task 1 (AC3.1)1 Task 2 (AC3.2)2 Task 3 (AC3.3)3 Task 4 (AC4.1)4 Task 5 (AC4.2)5 References6 LO 3 Understand principles of liability in negligence in business activities Task 1 (AC 3.1) Liability in Tort Contractual liability Definition: Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Principles of Liability in Negligence in Business Activities" essay for you Create order A tort is a legal term describing a violation where one person causes damage, injury, or harm to another person. The violation may result from intentional actions, a breach of duty as in negligence, or due to a violation of statutes. Explanation: The party that commits the tort is called the tortfeasor. A tortfeasor incurs tort liability, meaning that they will have to reimburse the victim for the harm that they caused them. In other words, the tortfeasor who is found to be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“liableà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  or responsible for a personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s injuries will likely be required to pay damages. Damages: Under most tort laws, the injury suffered by the plaintiff does not have to actually be physical. A tortfeasor may be required to pay damages for other types of harm, including emotional distress or a violation of personal rights. Types: Joint Liability Vicarious Liability Liability to/for Third Parties Plaintiff/victim Liability Strict Liability Parent Liability. Definition: Contractual liabilityis defined as liability that does not arise by way of negligence, but by assumption under contract or agreement. Explanation: A contract is a legal binding agreement between two or more persons. When you sign, or agree to the terms of a contract, then you have accepted the contractual liabilities set forth in the document. Damages: Liabilities are things that you can be held accountable for, and may have to repay or replace, in the event that they occur. For example, a renterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢sagreement may state that, If upon moving out of the premises stated in the contract, any part of the premises is destroyed, you may be accountable for and have to pay to repair, or replace the damage. Types: Contractual liability can take many forms, but is basically holds you accountable for damages that are stated in the contract. For example, Commercial contracts, domestic contracts and so forth. Task 2 (AC3.2) Negligenceis a failure to use reasonable care that results in harm to another party. There are four important elements to a negligence lawsuit that must be proven: The defendant owed a duty, either to the plaintiff or to the general public The defendant violated that duty The defendants violation of the duty resulted in harm to the plaintiff The plaintiffs injury was foreseeable by a reasonable person. Donohughe V Stevenson (1932) This famous case established the civil law tort of negligence and obliged manufacturers to have a duty of care towards their customers. The events of the complaint took place in Scotland in 1928, when Ms May Donoghue was given a bottle of ginger beer, purchased by a friend. The bottle was later discovered to contain a decomposing snail. Since the bottle was not of clear glass, Donoghue was not aware of the snail until she had consumed most of its contents. She later fell ill and was diagnosed with gastroenteritis by a doctor. Donoghue subsequently took legal action against the manufacturer of the ginger beer, Stevenson. She lodged a writ in the Court of Sessions (Scotlandà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s highest civil court) seeking  £500 damages. Because her friend had purchased the drink, Donoghue could not sue on the basis that a contract had been breached; her lawyers instead had to claim that Stevenson had a duty of care to his consumers and that he had caused injury through negligence à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" an area of civil law that was largely untested at that time. Stevensonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s lawyers challenged the action on the basis that no precedents existed for such a claim. However Donoghue was later granted leave to appeal to the House of Lords, which then had the judicial authority to hear appellate cases. The leading judgement, delivered by Lord Atkin in 1932, established that Stevenson should be responsible for the well-being of individuals who consume his products, given that they could not be inspected. The case was returned to the original court; Stevenson died before the case was finalised and Donoghue was awarded a reduced amount of damages from his estate. This case established several legal principles: Firstly, that negligence is a distinct tort. A plaintiff can take civil action against a respondent, if the respondentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s negligence causes the plaintiff injury or loss of property. Previously the plaintiff had to demonstrate some contractual arrangement for negligence to be proven, such as the sale of an item or an agreement to provide a service. Since Donoghue had not purchased the drink, she could prove no contractual arrangement with Stevenson à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" yet Atkinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s judgement established that Stevenson was still responsible for the integrity of his product. Secondly, manufacturers have a duty of care to consumers. According to Lord Atkinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ratio decendi, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a manufacturer of products, which he sells à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ to reach the ultimate consumer in the form in which they left him à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ owes a duty to the consumer to take reasonable careà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . This precedent has evolved and expanded to form the basis of laws that protect consumers from contaminated or faulty goods. Thirdly, Lord Atkinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s controversial à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"neighbour principleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Here Atkin raised the question of which people may be directly affected by our actions, our conduct or things we manufacture. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour. Who, then, in law, is my neighbour? The answer seems to be: persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought to have them in [mind] when I am I am [considering these] acts or omissions.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Task 3 (AC3.3) Vicarious liability is a situation in which one party is held partly responsible for the unlawful actions of a third party. The third party also carries his or her own share of the liability. Vicarious liability can arise in situations where one party is supposed to be responsible for (and have control over) a third party, and is negligent in carrying out that responsibility and exercising that control. If an employee injures someone in the course of their employment, the employer may be subject to vicarious liability. This simply means that the injured person may be able to win compensation for the harm from the employer, rather than the employee. This is not to say, though, that the employee can always count on getting away scot-free. Even if there is vicarious liability, the injured person does not necessarily give up any right he may have to pursue the employee individually. If, for some reason, the injured person is unable to get full compensation from the employer, then he might seek to recover the balance from the employee. In addition, the employer may well seek reimbursement for any amount paid to the injured person (although in practice this rarely occurs). Generally, employers dispute vicarious liability claims on the following grounds: The person who caused the harm was not an employee, but an independent contractor or other non-employee worker; The employee did not harm the injured person in the course of the employees employment. An illustration of the test is provided by two contrasting cases, [Limpus v London General Omnibus Company] and [Beard v London General Omnibus Company], both involving road collisions. In the former, a driver pulled in front of another rival omnibus, in order to obstruct it. Despite express prohibitions from the employer, they were found liable; this was merely an unauthorised mode of the employee carrying out his duties (driving), not an entirely new activity. By contrast, in the la tter case, London General Omnibus Company were not liable where a conductor (employed to collect fares on board the bus) negligently chose to drive the vehicle instead; this was completely outside of his duties. LO 4 Be able to apply principles of liability in negligence in business situations Task 4.1(AC4.1) A tort, in common law jurisdictions, is a civil wrong which unfairly causes someone else to suffer loss or harm resulting in legal liability for the person who commits the act. Although crimes may be torts, the cause of legal action is not necessarily a crime, as the harm may be due to negligence which does not amount to criminal negligence. The victim of the harm can recover their loss as damages in a lawsuit. In order to prevail, the plaintiff in the lawsuit must show that the actions or lack of action was the legally recognizable cause of the harm. The equivalent of tort in civil law jurisdictions is delict. Tort law is different from criminal law in that: (1) to rts may result from negligent but not intentional or criminal actions and (2) tort lawsuits have a lower burden of proof such as preponderance of evidence rather than beyond a reasonable doubt. Sometimes a plaintiff may prevail in a tort case even if the person who caused the harm was acquitted in an earlier criminal trial. For example, O.J. Simpson was acquitted in criminal court and later found liable for the tort of wrongful death. Torts may be categorized in several ways, with a particularly common division between negligent and intentional torts. The standard action in tort is negligence. Negligence is a tort which arises from the breach of the duty of care owed by one person to another from the perspective of a reasonable person. The majority determined that the definition of negligence can be divided into four component parts that the plaintiff must prove to establish negligence. The elements in determining the liability for negligence are: The plaintiff was owed a duty of care through a special relationship (e.g. doctor-patient) or some other principle. There was a dereliction or breach of that duty. The tortfeasor directly caused the injury [but for the defendants actions, the plaintiff would not have suffered an injury]. The plaintiff suffered damage as a result of that breach. The damage was not too remote; there was proximate cause to show the breach caused the damage. Elements of Negligence Proximate cause Proximate cause means that you must be able to show that the harm was caused by the tort you are suing for. The defence may argue that there was a prior cause or a superseding intervening cause. A common situation where a prior cause becomes an issue is the personal injury car accident, where the person re-injures an old injury. Duty of care It arises when one party creates a scenario that has the potential to harm the other party. Duty focuses on relationship between the two parties: The test whether the defendant owes a duty of care to plaintiff includes: Would a reasonable person have foreseen that the actions would have caused harm to the plaintiff? Reasonable person represents an objective standard. Breach of duty Breach of duty occurs when a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“reasonable personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  is not exercising the degree of care that would have expected from him/her in that situation. Reasonable person is an average person. It does not require perfection, but takes into account that an average person does not foresee every risk. The average person is not assumed to be flawless, but ordinarily careful and prudent. Actual Harm Actual harm could be in the form of physical or emotional injuries, property damages or financial loss. The main remedy against tortious loss is compensation in damages or money. According to the scenario, Chris was in an internet cafe. He got up to purchase a coffee and was slipped on some water that was on the floor and broke his arm. This depends upon the intention of Chris. If Chris slipped intentionally and did foresee this accident, then the cafeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ will not be responsible for the damages caused. If this is not the case, t hen the elements of negligence need to be applied to see if Chris can claim the damages. Negligence is important aspect to look at, means that the defendant (the cafeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢) failed to act in a reasonable manner under the circumstances. For example, it is reasonable to expect that the cafeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ placed a warning signs in recently mopped areas or wet surface. If this is not done, then it means that the cafeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ did not fulfil the duty of care. Chris can claim damages as a result of it as he slipped and broke his arm. There are various implications on the scenario in terms of duty of care, negligence (intentional or otherwise) and it is up to the court to decide the outcome. Task 5 (AC4.2) Two clear elements must be established in order to establish a vicarious liability: Was the tortfeasor the defendantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s employee; and Was the tortfeasor acting in the course of his or her employment at the time the tort was committed. The existence of a relationship of employer and employee Many tests have been suggested for distinguishing between a contract of service and a contract for services. These include: Control test Ready Mix Concrete Ltd v Minister of Pensions and National Insurance (1968) Integration test à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Stevenson Jordan Harrison Ltd v MacDonald Evans (1952) Organisation Test à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Albrighton v Royal Prince Alfred Hopital (1980) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The ultimate question will always be whether a person is acting as the servant of another or on his own behalf and the answer to that question may be indicated in ways which are not always the same and which do not always have the same significanceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . Conclusion as to whether defendant is an employer or contractor. If the defendant is an independent contractor the employer canà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t be vicariously liable for the acts of that contractor. The employer will only be liable (as a primary liability) if the employerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s tortious duty is, in law, non-delegable: Kondis v STA; Burnie Port Authority v General Jones Pty Ltd. Was the employee acting within the course of employment? General rule is that whilst acting in the course of employment the employer is not vicariously liable for independent wrongful acts of employees (Bugge Brown). In determining the scope of the employment relationship the actions of the employee must be reasonably incidental to employment i.e. the employer is not vicariously liable if the employee is on a frolic of their own (Joel v Morison). (Situations to consider the necessary authorities) Wrongful mode of completing authorised act à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" employer vicariously liable (Bugge Brown) Express prohibition by employer not necessarily a defence if the employeeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s act was still a mode of doing what he employee was employed to do à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" employer vicariously liable (Century Insurance Company v Northern Island Road Transport). Acting outside scope of employment relationship à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" employer not vicariously liable (Koorang Investments v Richardson). Driving cases For example, there are a number of truck driving cases where the court has had to decide whether the driver was acting within the course of his employment when driving the vehicle outside a designated route. Essentially, the pattern seems to be that if the drivers job is to get from Point A to Point B, and his detour from the designated route was simply another way of getting to Point B, then he is acting within the course of his employment. On the other hand, if the driver takes a detour for some other, non-business purpose (such as picking up a girlfriend and taking her shopping) then he would likely be regarded as acting outside the course of his employment. According to the scenario, Trevor is a driver who drives a lorry for a Haulage firm. He delivers deliveries for the company which suggests that he is an employee of the firm. Whilst at work, he detours the lorry and meets his girl friend. This is a non business purpose which means he is acting outsi de the scope of his duties. As he leaves his girlfriendà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s house to continue deliveries, he negligently crashes into a car park. As stated above, two conditions must be met in order to establish a vicarious liability: was the tortfeasor the defendantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s employee; and Was the tortfeasor acting in the course of his or her employment at the time the tort was committed. In this case, the tortfeasor was Chris and the defendant is the Haulage firm. Chris was an employee and also he was acting in the course of his employment to meet his girlfriend and later on crashes his lorry. The vicarious liability is established and hence Chris is liable and not the haulage firm. References Tort Liability (2014). Available: https://www.legalmatch.com/law-library/article/tort-law-liability.html. [Last accessed 10 March, 2014] Donoghue V Stevenson (1932). Available: https://lawgovpol.com/case-study-donoghue-v-stevenson-1932/. [Last accessed 12 March, 2014]. Negligence (2014). Available: https://www.lawyersandsettlements.com/lawsuit/negligence.html?opt=cutm_expid=36075225.Uj6X3hD9S1KR79nt0Iy0tA.1utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.co.uk%2F#.UySBAj9_sSM. [Last accessed 12 March, 2014] Accidents and injuries (2014). Available: https://www.findlaw.co.uk/law/accidents_and_injuries/accident_claims/500045.html. [Last accessed 13 March, 2014] Vicarious Liability (2014). Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_liability_in_English_law. [Last accessed 13 March, 2014] Breach of duty (2014). Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breach_of_duty_in_English_law. [Last accessed 14 March, 2014] Tort (2014). Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tort. [Last accessed 14 March, 2014] Eustace, D, (2007) Negligent Misstatement à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Dillon Eustace. Keenan, D., and Smith, K., (2006) Law for Business (13th Edition) Pearson Education Limited. McKendrick, E. Contract Law (2000). fourth edition. McMillan. Basington. Poole, J. Casebook on Contract Law (2001). 5th edition. London. Vickneswaren, K., (1997) Obligations: Contract Law (1st Edition) Old Bailey Press: London. Page 1 of 12

Relative Adverbs Definition and Examples in English Grammar

A relative adverb is an adverb (where, when, or why) that introduces a relative clause, which is sometimes called a relative adverb clause. Examples and Observations It must be wonderful to live in a safe and timeless place, where you know everyone and everyone knows you, and you can all count on each other.(Bill Bryson, The Lost Continent. Harper and Row, 1989)This Hollywood restaurant is one of the quintessential power spots, especially on Mondays, when stars abound and tourists are discouraged.The reason why so many wealthy Americans come to Europe is to avoid this obligation to work.(Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 1840)When I am run down and flocked around by the world, I go down to Farte Cove off the Yazoo River and take my beer to the end of the pier where the old liars are still snapping and wheezing at one another.(Barry Hannah, Water Liars. Airships. Knopf, 1978)On my first night in town I went to a restaurant called Cock-of-the-Walk, where they had deep-fat-fried catfish and deep-fat-fried every other thing you can think of on earth including—seriously—deep-fat-fried pickles. Theyre delicious.(P.J. ORourke, W hitewater. Age and Guile, Beat Youth, Innocence, and a Bad Haircut. Atlantic Monthly Press, 1995) Functions of Relative Adverbs The relative adverbs where, when, and why also introduce adjectival clauses, modifiers of nouns denoting place (where clauses), time (when clauses), and of the noun reason (why clauses): Newsworthy events rarely happen in the small town where I lived as a child,We will all feel nervous until next Tuesday, when results of the auditions will be posted.I understand the reason why Margo got the lead. (Martha Kolln, Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects. Pearson, 2007) Relative Adverbs in Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses The relative adverbs where, when, and why are exemplified [below] in [20]-[22]. Of these citations, [20] is non-restrictive and [21]-[22] are restrictive: [20] A similar scenario occurs around the margins of the Amazon basin, where farmers are forced to encroach onto the forest margins in order to subsist. [W1A-013-62][21] We hear little of the day-to-day successes but only of the odd occasion when conflict arises [S2B-031-53].[22] But that was one reason why I never wanted to do that again actually [S1A008-63] The relative adverbs can be replaced by relative pronouns or by prepositional phrases with relative pronouns as complements. (Sidney Greenbaum, Oxford English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 1996)She smoked in the bathtub, where wed find her drowned butts lined up in a neat row beside the shampoo bottle.(David Sedaris, Diary of a Smoker. Barrel Fever. Back Bay Books, 1994)Oh, give me a home where the buffalo roamWhere the deer and the antelope play;Where seldom is heard a discouraging word,And the sky is not cloudy all day.(Brewster Higley, Home on the Range)The reason why worry kills more people than work is that more people worry than work.But when the place where she played became too well known, she began to sing with an accompanist, became a star, moved to a larger place, then downtown, and is now in Hollywood.(Langston Hughes, The Big Sea, 1940)A line of people filed through the parlor where, among lace whirligigs, Jacks coffin rested on black-draped sawhorses.(E. Annie Proul x, The Shipping News. Simon and Schuster, 1993) Alternatives to Relative Adverbs Like relative pronouns, relative adverbs introduce relative clauses. - The relative adverb when is used to modify a noun phrase of time. Such noun phrases include nouns that denote periods of time such as, day, week, hour, minute, month, year, and similar events.- The relative adverb where is used to modify a noun phrase of place, location, or space.- The relative adverb why is used to modify a noun phrase with the noun reason ...The relative pronouns that or on which can be substituted for the relative adverb when... The relative pronouns which and that can be substituted for the relative adverb where. When which or that is used, a preposition of place must be included.(Andrea DeCapua, Grammar for Teachers: A Guide to American English for Native and Non-Native Speakers. Springer, 2008) Relative Adverb Clauses Relative adverb clauses are subject and predicate (finite verb) structures carrying out the grammatical functions attributed to an adverb modifier. They are introduced by the relative adverbs when, where, and why, expressing such meanings as time, place, and reason. They differ from relative adjective clauses only with regard to the grammatical functions that the pronouns carry out within their own clauses. Similarly, these relatives carry out the grammatical function of connector. As sentence constituents they both modify or refer back to an antecedent in the independent clause, which is a noun or its replacement. (Bernard ODwyer, Modern English Structures: Form, Function, And Position, 2nd ed. Broadview Press, 2006)The relative adverb where begins a clause that modifies a noun of place. For example, My family now lives in the town where my grandfather used to be sheriff. The relative pronoun where modifies the verb used to be, but the entire clause modifies the noun town.A when cla use modifies nouns of time. For example, My favorite day of the week is Friday, when the weekend is about to begin.A why clause modifies the noun reason. For example, Do you know the reason why school is out today? Sometimes the relative adverb is left out of these clauses, and the writer substitutes that instead. For example, Do you know the reason that school is out today? (James Stroman et al., Administrative Assistants and Secretarys Handbook. Amacom, 2004)

Adelphia Lying, Cheating, and Stealing - 920 Words

Lying, Cheating and Stealing Lying, Cheating and Stealing White collar crime is not a victimless crime. People’s lives can be ruined through the loss of a job, loss of savings and loss of assets. It is hard to not hear about white collar crime when looking at news. While not a justification for illegal actions, pressure is very high for companies to perform well and show growth. This pressure can lead people to commit crimes to falsify results or to enrich themselves. Laws and regulation, such as Sarbanes-Oxley have been implemented to provide greater transparency and accountability. However, the crime has become more sophisticated and complex. Many examples of such crimes involve greed and feelings of entitlement. One such†¦show more content†¦Another son, Michael, only got 10 months under house arrest. In 2008, John and Timothy Rigas were back in appeals court, where one of their 23 fraud sentences was thrown out. Their lawyer argued that their prison terms were unfair. Rigas, 86, had his sentence dropped to 12 ye ars. I find it very interesting that white collar criminal punishment, many incidents involve vast sums of money, seem to get small punishment. Mr. Rigas only was sentenced to 12 years in prison. However, I do think that laws, and the application of those laws, should always be consistent. If someone is unhappy about a law then they should try to change the law. It is possible that if laws and punishment was more severe perhaps less white collar crime would be committed. I think the punishment in the Rigas case was fair. While it may seem light, the law was followed. The Rigas family no longer owns Adelphia and they are serving time in prison. At Mr. Rigas’ age it could very well be a life sentence. One ethical issue that comes to mind is the money John Rigas took from the company to support a lavish lifestyle. All the while he was concealing a huge amount of debt. 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