Environmental Law

AN INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL LAW James Maurici, Landmark Chambers Introduction 1. This talk will look at: i. What is environmental law? ii. The sources of environmental law iii. Some key concepts in environmental law: the precautionary principle, the polluter pays, public participation and access to environmental justice iv. An introduction to the main areas of environmental law: a. air quality b. climate change c. contaminated land d. noise e. environmental permitting f. waste g. ater h. nature conservation i. nuisance j. environmental impact assessment k. strategic environmental assessment l. REACH v. Some recent important environmental cases. 2. Further reading: the best introduction to the subject is the excellent Bell & McGillivray, Environmental Law (OUP, 7th ed. , 2008). What is environmental law? 3. There is no agreement on what environmental law is. This is a source of endless (academic) debate. 4. What is the â€Å"environment†? Some legal definitions †¦ i. S. (2) of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (â€Å"the EPA 1990†) â€Å"The â€Å"environment† consists of all, or any, of the following media, namely, the air, water and land; and the medium of air includes the air within buildings and the air within other natural or man-made structures above or below ground. † ii. Environmental Management Standard ISO 14001 â€Å" †¦ air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans and their interrelationship †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ; iii. See also Annex I to the Aarhus Convention, of which more later †¦ 1 5. A â€Å"new† subject, underdeveloped? see â€Å"Maturity and methodology: starting a debate about environmental law scholarship† Fisher, Lange, Scotford and Carlarne, J. Env. L. (2009) 21(2), 213-250. Fundamental questions about environmental law: i. Christopher Stone, â€Å"Should Trees Have Standing? : Towards Legal Rights for Natural Objects† (1972) Southern California LR 450-501; ii. Wild Law? The term â€Å"wild law† was first coined by Cormac Cullinan, a lawyer based in Cape Town, South Africa (Wild Law: A Manifesto for Earth Justice, Green Books, Totnes, Devon, 2003): see http://www. ukela. org/rte. asp? d=5 and â€Å"On thin ice – Could ‘wild laws' protecting all the Earth's community – including animals, plants, rivers and ecosystems – save our natural world? â€Å", by Boyle and Elcoate (The Guardian, 8 November 2006) – the idea is â€Å"Fish, trees, fresh water, or any elements of the environment, †¦ having legal rights† which can be vindicated by local communities (http://www. guardian. co. uk/environment/2006/nov/08/ethicalliving. society). Environmental law has many aspects: i. Private law: tort – especially nuisance (public and private), and also property law; ii. Public law – state regulation: a. Setting standards: water quality, air quality; b. equiring authorisation of activities – town planning, environmental permitting; c. Prescribing procedures to be carried out – EIA, SEA; – nature d. Identifying land or species that must be protected conservation, Sites of Special Scientific Interest (â€Å"SSSIs†), the Green Belt, AONBs etc; e. Banning activities – fly tipping; f. Creating civil liability – contaminated land regime (see below); the Environmental Liability Directive 2004/35 implemented by the Environmental Damage (Prevention and Remediation) Regulations 2009 (http://www. defra. gov. uk/environment/policy/liability/) etc. iii. Criminal law: environmental crime: a.Numerous offences in many Acts; b. Environment Agency (formerly National Rivers Authority) v Empress Car Co [1999] 2 A. C. 22: unknown person opened the unlockable tap of a diesel tank kept by Empress in a yard which drained directly into a river, with the result that the contents of the tank overflowed and drained into the river's waters. Empressâ€⠄¢s conviction for causing poisonous, noxious or polluting matter to enter controlled waters contrary to the Water Resources Act 1991 s. 85(1) on a prosecution brought by the NRA upheld by HL; 6. 7. 2 c. See the Environment Agency’s prosecution guide: http://www. nvironmentagency. gov. uk/business/444217/444661/112913/? version=1&lang=_e d. A new approach: The Regulatory Enforcement and Sanctions Act 2008 (â€Å"RESA 2008†) – main provisions brought into force 1 October 2008. The Act gives Government the power to give regulators, including local authorities, the Environment Agency, Natural England, English Heritage, the Countryside Council for Wales and others range of new enforcement powers (called â€Å"civil sanctions†). The Act was a response to a review by Richard Macrory1 that criticised the heavy reliance of most areas of regulation on criminal sanctions.The civil sanctions introduced are intended to provide regulators with an alternative to prosec utions and formal cautions. The intention is that the new sanctions will create a more proportionate regulatory framework, and reduce the administrative burden for regulators and businesses alike. 1. The civil sanctions created by RESA 2008 include: a. fixed monetary penalties in respect of relevant offences (ss. 39-41); b. discretionary requirements which may include variable monetary penalties, compliance requirements, and restoration requirements (ss. 42-45); c. top notices, which prohibit a regulated person from carrying on a particular activity (ss. 46-49); d. enforcement undertakings, whereby regulated persons avoid the effects of other civil sanctions by undertaking to take certain actions (s. 50). 2. The actual schemes for these civil sanctions are to be made by the relevant government departments in respect of the matters falling within their respective competences. RESA 2008 simply provides the statutory basis for such enforcement mechanisms. In the environmental context, the Environment Agency and Natural England are the first to be given powers under RESA.The Environmental Civil Sanctions (England) Order 2010 and the Environmental Sanctions (Misc. Amendments) (England) Regulations 2010 have now been laid before Parliament. The Welsh Assembly Government is drawing up co-ordinated secondary legislation in Wales to extend civil sanctioning powers to the Environment Agency in Wales. 3. The Environment Agency press release on 3 February 2010 says â€Å"The Environment Agency will be consulting business from 15 February 2010 to help shape how the new powers will be implemented†. The Orders provide further detail on the level of the penalties to be provided for: 1R Macrory â€Å"Regulatory Justice: Making Sanctions Effective† Cabinet Office November 2006 3 4. 5. 6. 7. a. In relation to fixed monetary penalties, the level of penalty is set at between ? 100 – ? 300 (Para. 3, Sch. 1); b. In relation to variable monetary penalties, no max imum level is set by the RESA 2008, save that where the offence is triable only summarily, the penalty must not exceed the maximum amount for that fine (Para. 4, Sch. 2). An example case in the DEFRA consultation proposes a variable monetary penalty of ? 38,500 for a water pollution incident as a result of poor site maintenance.The Environmental Civil Sanctions (England) Order 2010 though sets a maximum limit of ? 250,000. RESA 2008 provides that the regulator may only impose a monetary penalty in respect of a relevant offence where it is â€Å"satisfied beyond reasonable doubt† that the subject of the penalty has committed the relevant offence (s 39(2); s. 42(2)). Both fixed and discretionary monetary penalties are to be imposed by the service of a â€Å"notice of intent† to impose a penalty, which affords the subject of the penalty an opportunity to make representations to the regulator.If the person fails to convince the regulator that the penalty should not be issu ed (or perhaps that the amount of the penalty should be reduced), the regulator will then issue a final notice requiring the payment of a penalty. Where a fixed or variable monetary penalty is imposed on a person, or when a notice of intent is served, criminal proceedings cannot be taken in respect of that person (ss 41, 44). As such, the monetary penalty is intended to replace the criminal offence. Stop notices are notices issued by a regulator with the intention of prohibiting a person from carrying on a certain activity until the steps pecified in the notice have been taken. They can be imposed where the regulator reasonably believes that an activity (presently occurring or likely to occur) is causing, or presents a significant risk of causing, serious harm to human health, the environment, and the financial interests of consumers, and the regulator reasonably believes that the activity as carried on involves or is likely to involve the commission of a relevant offence (s 46(4)). Persons receiving a final notice, or a stop notice, have a right of appeal.That right of appeal must allow the subject of the penalty to challenge the decision on (at least) the following bases – see RESA 2008: a. That the decision to impose the penalty was based on an error of fact; b. That the decision was wrong in law; 4 c. That the decision was unreasonable (and in the case of variable penalties, that the amount of the penalty was unreasonable); d. In relation to stop notices only, that the person has not committed the offence and would not have committed the offence if the stop notice was not served. 8.In common with the other civil sanctions, the appeal is made to the new Regulatory Chamber of the First-tier Tribunal created under the Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007. RESA 2008 itself contains no indication of what level of scrutiny the Tribunal will apply to a decision of a regulator. On the face of the Act, it is not clear whether it should apply a Wednesbu ry test, or whether it should (in effect) retake the decision. However, the draft Order provides that â€Å"the regulator must prove the commission of the offence beyond reasonable doubt† on appeal and that â€Å"the tribunal must determine the standard of proof in any other matter†.An appeal from the First-tier Tribunal is to the Upper Tribunal on a point of law only. 9. Article 6 issues: see Rethinking regulatory sanctions: Regulatory Enforcement and Sanctions Act 2008 – an exchange of letters E. L. M. 2009, 21(4), 183-18. iv. EC law: generally said 80% of environmental law in UK derives from EU – see below. v. International law: see further below, increasingly important. 8. Planning law: is planning law part of environmental law? Yes, undoubdetly. But beyond this talk to consider: see Moore A Practical Approach to Planning Law (10th ed, OUP).Who are the regulators? i. Central Government: Defra, DCLG, DECC but also DfT, BERR; ii. Local Government: histo rical role in public health protection. Now: Town & Country Planning, EPA 1990 (statutory nuisance); noise; also air quality and management and contaminated land (for non-special sites). Also a regulator under Environmental Permitting Regulations 2007 (soon to be 2010, â€Å"the EPR†) for certain installations; iii. The Environment Agency: an executive non-departmental government body, principal environmental regulator in England & Wales.Responsible for: environmental permitting, water resources, flooding and coast management, waste, emissions trading. 13,000 employees. In Scotland SEPA; iv. Natural England: merger of English Nature and Countryside Agency responsible for nature conservation, species and habitat protection, National Parks, Countryside and Rights of Way Act. CCW similar role in Wales. In Scotland Scottish National Heritage; v. Others: Maritime and Coastguard Agency; Drinking Water Inspectorate; Nuclear Installations Inspectorate. 5 9. The sources of environment al law (1) International Environmental Law 10.Important – direct influence on domestic law, but also on EC law and through that domestic law. 11. Some examples: the 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Pollution, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Aarhus Convention (see below). 12. Illustrate importance of International Law by reference to the UNECE Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (â€Å"the Aarhus Convention†). The Aarhus Convention entered into force in October 2001. It was ratified by the UK in February 2005, and by the EU in the same month.As of 8 September 2009, there were 43 Parties to the Convention. 13. Article 1: In order to contribute to the protection of the right of every person of present and future generations to live in an environment adequate to his or her health and well being, each Party shall guarantee the rights of access to information, public partici pation in decision making, and access to justice in environmental matters in accordance with the provisions of this Convention. 14. The Convention contains three broad themes or ‘pillars': i. access to environmental nformation (Articles 4 -5); ii. public participation in environmental decision-making (Articles 6 -8); and iii. access to justice in environmental matters (Article 9). 15. Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan said â€Å"Although regional in scope, the significance of the Aarhus Convention is global. It is by far the most impressive elaboration of principle 10 of the Rio Declaration, which stresses the need for citizens' participation in environmental issues and for access to information on the environment held by public authorities.As such it is the most ambitious venture in the area of environmental democracy so far undertaken under the auspices of the United Nations† (emphasis added). 16. It has had, and continues to have a profound impact on the development of EC and UK environmental law. 17. Access to environmental information: i. the Environmental Information Regulations 2004 (SI 2004/3391) (â€Å"the EIR†); ii. implements Directive 2003/4/EC on public access to environmental information (â€Å"EI Directive†). The EI Directive repealed the earlier Directive 90/313/EEC and was intended to give effect to the Aarhus Convention. 6 18.The EIR apply to â€Å"environmental information†, which is defined in regulation 2 in the following way: â€Å"â€Å"environmental information† has the same meaning as in Article 2(1) of the Directive, namely any information in written, visual, aural, electronic or any other material form on– (a) the state of the elements of the environment, such as air and atmosphere, water, soil, land, landscape and natural sites including wetlands, coastal and marine areas, biological diversity and its components, including genetically modified organisms, and the inter action among these elements; (b) factors, such as substances, energy, noise, radiation or waste, including radioactive waste, emissions, discharges and other releases into the environment, affecting or likely to affect the elements of the environment referred to in (a); (c) measures (including administrative measures), such as policies, legislation, plans, programmes, environmental agreements, and activities affecting or likely to affect the elements and factors referred to in (a) and (b) as well as measures or activities designed to protect those elements; (d) reports on the implementation of environmental legislation; e) cost-benefit and other economic analyses and assumptions used within the framework of the measures and activities referred to in (c); and (f) the state of human health and safety, including the contamination of the food chain, where relevant, conditions of human life, cultural sites and built structures inasmuch as they are or may be affected by the state of the e lements of the environment referred to in (a) or, through those elements, by any of the matters referred to in (b) and (c)† 19. As is clear from the EIR, that definition replicates that in the EI Directive, which in turn is in similar terms to the definition of environmental information in the Aarhus Convention. The ECJ has treated â€Å"environmental information† as having a broad meaning under Directive 90/313/EEC.In Case C-321/96 Mecklenburg v Kreis Pinneberg – Der Landrat [1998] ECR I-3809, the ECJ found the wording of the definition (albeit different from that in the present version of the EI Directive) to create a broad concept of what can constitute environmental information. 20. A broad interpretation of the meaning of environmental information is also advocated by the Information Commissioner’s Office (â€Å"ICO†), see http://www. ico. gov. uk/what_we_cover/environmental_information_regulation/guida nce. aspx. Requests falling under the EIR must be dealt with under those regulations and not as an FOIA request. NB the procedures and exemptions are different. 21.The Supreme Court in Office of Communications v Information Commissioner [2010] UKSC 3 referred to ECJ the following question: â€Å"Under Council Directive 2003/4/EC , where a public authority holds environmental information, disclosure of which would have some adverse effects on the separate interests served by more than one exception (in casu, the interests of public security served by article 4(2(b) and those of intellectual property rights served by article 4(2)(e)), but it would not do so, in the case of either exception viewed separately, to any extent sufficient to outweigh the public interest in disclosure, does the Directive require a further exercise involving the cumulation of the separate interests served by the two exceptions and their weighing together against the public interest in disclosure? †. The information requested relates to the pr ecise location of mobile phone base stations in the United Kingdom. 7 22. For other cases touching on the EIR: see Veolia ES Nottinghamshire Ltd v Nottinghamshire CC [2010] Env. L. R. 2 and the BARD case discussed in the Annex below. 23. Public participation in environmental decision-making: In R(Greenpeace Ltd) v Secretary of State for Trade and Industry [2007] Env. L. R. 29 (a challenge to the consultation process in relation to new build nuclear) Sullivan J said: â€Å"49. Whatever the position may be in other policy areas, in the development of policy in the environmental field consultation is no longer a privilege to be granted or withheld at will by the executive. The United Kingdom Government is a signatory to the Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (the Aarhus Convention).The Preamble records the parties to the Convention: â€Å"Recognizing that adequate protection of the environment is essential to human wellbeing and the enjoyment of basic human rights, including the right to life itself, Recognizing also that every person has the right to live in an environment adequate to his or her health and well-being, and the duty, both individually and in association with others, to protect and improve the environment for the benefit of present and future generations, Considering that, to be able to assert this right and observe this duty, citizens must have access to information, be entitled to participate in decision-making and have access to justice in environmental matters, and acknowledging in this regard that citizens may need assistance in order to exercise their rights, Recognizing that, in the field of the environment, improved access to information and public participation in decision-making enhance the quality and the implementation of decisions, contribute to public awareness of environmental issues, give the public the opportunity to express its concerns and enable public authorities to take due account of such concerns Aiming thereby to further the accountability of and transparency in decision-making and to strengthen public support for decisions on the environment, †¦Ã¢â‚¬  50 Article 7 deals with â€Å"Public Participation concerning Plans, Programmes and Policies relating to the Environment†. The final sentence says: â€Å"To the extent appropriate, each Party shall endeavour to provide opportunities for public participation in the preparation of policies relating to the environment. † 51 Given the importance of the decision under challenge—whether new nuclear build should now be supported—it is difficult to see how a promise of anything less than â€Å"the fullest public consultation† would have been consistent with the Government's obligations under the Aarhus Convention †¦Ã¢â‚¬ . 24.See also what Lord Hoffmann said on public participation in the context of EIA in Berkeley (see below ). 25. Access to justice in environmental matters: Article 9 requires that members of the public have access to a review procedure before a court of law and/or another independent and impartial body established by law, to challenge the substantive and procedural legality of environmental decision-making. Article 9(4) requires that the procedures for rights of access to justice in environmental matters shall â€Å"provide adequate and effective remedies, including injunctive relief as appropriate, and be fair, equitable, timely, and not prohibitively expensive†.In recent times the key issue in England & Wales has been the â€Å"not prohibitively expensive† requirement: see below. 8 26. What is the status of the Aarhus Convention? i. It is an international convention, and the parties to the convention have established a Compliance Committee that can investigate alleged instances of non-compliance. There are currently three complaints relating to the UK in which decisions are awaited: a. ACCC/C/2008/27: this is a complaint brought by the Cultra Residents’ Association, County Down. The Association was one of five who were applicants in judicial review proceedings brought in the High Court in Northern Ireland.The judicial review proceedings related to the expansion of City Airport in Belfast. The proceedings were dismissed as being premature (Kinnegar Residents’ Action Group & Ors, Re Judicial Review [2007] NIQB 90 (7 November 2007)). The Department’s costs were awarded against the applicants in the sum of ? 39,454. The Association alleged that the award of costs violated its rights under Article 9 of the Aarhus Convention. b. ACCC/C/2008/23: this arises out of the Morgan v Hinton Organics case considered below. A summary of that case records the complaint as being that the communicants â€Å"rights under article 9, paragraph 4, of the Convention were violated when they were ordered to pay costs amounting to approximately ? 5,000 , which, in the opinion of the communicants, is prohibitively expensive. The costs order was issued following a discharge of an interim injunction obtained by them earlier in private nuisance proceedings for an injunction to prohibit offensive odours arising from Hinton Organics (Wessex) Ltd operating a waste composting site. The communicants allege that the issuing of the costs order by the Court, in circumstances where one month before it had agreed and made an order that there was a serious issue to be tried and that the Claimants should enjoy interim injunctive relief, amounts to non-compliance with article 9, paragraph 4, of the Convention†. c.A third communication concerning the UK has been brought Mr. James Thornton, the CEO of ClientEarth. The complaint there is that the â€Å"law and jurisprudence of the [UK] fail to comply with the requirements of article 9, paragraphs 2 to 5, in particular in connection with restriction on review of substantive legality in the cour se of judicial review, limitations on possibility for individuals and NGOs to challenge act or omissions of private persons which contradict environmental law, prohibitive nature of costs related to access to justice and uncertain and overly restrictive nature of rules related to time limits within which an action for judicial review can be brought†. ii.The status of the Convention in the domestic law of the UK was recently considered by the Court of Appeal of England & Wales in Morgan v Hinton Organics (Wessex) Ltd [2009] C. P. Rep. 26 – see further below. Carnwath LJ explained (see para. 22) that â€Å"[f]or the purposes of domestic law, the convention has the status of an international treaty, not directly incorporated. Thus its provisions cannot be directly applied by domestic courts, but may be 9 taken into account in resolving ambiguities in legislation intended to give it effect (see Halsbury’s Laws Vol 44(1) Statutes para. 1439))†. iii. The EC dime nsion: The EU itself has ratified the Aarhus Convention.As a result its institutions can take enforcement action against Member States for non-compliance. Indeed the provisions of Article 9 of the Aarhus Convention concerning access to justice have been inserted into two key EC environmental directives. Article 10A of the 1985 EC Directive on Environmental Impact Assessment (â€Å"EIA†) provides that Member States must ensure that members of the public have access to a review procedure before a court of law or other independent body to challenge the substantive or procedural decisions, acts or omissions subject to the public participation provisions of the Directive, and that â€Å"any such procedure shall be fair, equitable, timely, and not prohibitively expensive†.Directive 96/61/EC on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (â€Å"IPPC†), which provides for a consent system for a wide range of industrial activities, is similarly amended with a new Article 15a, which also provides that procedures for legal challenges must be fair, equitable, timely, and not prohibitively expensive. Also: a. The requirements of Article 9 have been recently considered by the ECJ: Case C? 427/07 Commission v Ireland 17 July 20092; b. It is well known that in 2006 CAJE (Capacity Global, Friends of the Earth, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and WWF) complained to the EC Commission about UK non-compliance with Aarhus in particular as regards the â€Å"not prohibitively expensive† obligation. A Letter of Formal Notice was sent to the UK in December 2007.It is understood that the Commission is currently considering whether to issue the UK with a Reasoned Opinion. It is said in Morgan v Hinton Organics that the Commission decision was awaiting the Sullivan Report (www. wwf. org. uk/filelibrary/pdf/justice_report_08. pdf, see below) This arose in the context of infraction proceedings against the Republic of Ireland. In the proceedings it w as alleged, inter alia, that Ireland had failed to transpose requirements in Article 10a of the EIA Directive and Article 15a of the IPPC Directive by ensuring that procedures for access to justice in respect of decisions made under those Directives were not prohibitively expensive.The Commission complained that â€Å"there is no applicable ceiling as regards the amount that an unsuccessful applicant will have to pay, as there is no legal provision which refers to the fact that the procedure will not be prohibitively expensive†. The ECJ concluded that: â€Å"92. As regards the fourth argument concerning the costs of proceedings, it is clear †¦ that the procedures established in the context of those provisions must not be prohibitively expensive. That covers only the costs arising from participation in such procedures. Such a condition does not prevent the courts from making an order for costs provided that the amount of those costs complies with that requirement. 3 Alth ough it is common ground that the Irish courts may decline to order an unsuccessful party to pay the costs and can, in addition, order expenditure incurred by the unsuccessful party to be borne by the other party, that is merely a discretionary practice on the part of the courts. 94 That mere practice which cannot, by definition, be certain, in the light of the requirements laid down by the settled case-law of the Court, †¦ cannot be regarded as valid implementation of the obligations arising from [the EIA and IPPC Directives]† 2 10 and the UK’s response to it. This is because the UK Government had indicated in would respond to the Sullivan Report. It then did not do so.The first public response to the Sullivan Report came in the form of the submissions of the UK to the Aarhus Compliance Committee in the Cultra Residents Association communication and related communications (see above). Some of the correspondence between the Commission and the UK is recorded in the judgment in Morgan (see below) as is correspondence between the Aarhus compliance authorities and the UK. 27. The influence of Aarhus in the English Courts: there have been numerous cases in England & Wales that have made reference to the Aarhus Convention in the costs context. The most common context in which this consideration has arisen is in respect of applications for a protective costs order or PCO – about which much more below. 28. The first time that Aarhus was mentioned by the Courts of England & Wales was in R. Burkett) v Hammersmith and Fulham LBC (Costs) [2004] EWCA [2005] C. P. Rep. 113. Since then Aarhus been at the forefront of the liberalisation of the PCO case-law. The restrictive approach evident in the (non-environmental cases) of R (Corner House Research) v. Secretary of State for Trade and Industry [2005] 1 WLR 2600 and R (Goodson) v Bedfordshire & Luton Coroner [2006] C. P. Rep. 6 has been relaxed and Aarhus has been at the forefront of this: The Court o f Appeal in an addendum to their judgment having referred to the requirement in the Aarhus Convention that judicial procedures in environmental law â€Å"not be prohibitively expensive† said: â€Å"75.A recent study of the environmental justice system (â€Å"Environmental Justice: a report by the Environmental Justice Project†, sponsored by the Environmental Law Foundation and others) recorded the concern of many respondents that the current costs regime â€Å"precludes compliance with the Aarhus Convention†. It also reported, in the context of public civil law, the view of practitioners that the very limited profit yielded by environmental cases has led to little interest in the subject by lawyers â€Å"save for a few concerned and interested individuals†. It made a number of recommendations, including changes to the costs rules, and the formation of a new environmental court or tribunal. 76. †¦. f the figures revealed by this case were in any sens e typical of the costs reasonably incurred in litigating such cases up to the highest level, very serious questions would be raised as to the possibility of ever living up to the Aarhus ideals within our present legal system. †¦ 77. Equally disturbing, perhaps, is the fact that this large expenditure on Mrs Burkett’s behalf has not, as far as we know, yielded any practical benefit to her or her neighbours. †¦ 80. We would strongly welcome a broader study of this difficult issue, with the support of the relevant government departments, the professions and the Legal Services Commission. However, it is important that such a study should be conducted in the real world, and should look at the issue not only from the point of view of the lawyers involved, but also taking account of the likely practical benefits to their clients and the public.It may be thought desirable to include in such a study certain issues that relate to a quite different contemporary concern (which did not arise on the present appeal), namely that an unprotected claimant in such a case, if unsuccessful in a public interest challenge, may have to pay very heavy legal costs to the successful defendant, and that this may be a potent factor in deterring litigation directed towards protecting the environment from harm. † 3 11 i. R (England) v LB of Tower Hamlets [2006] EWCA Civ 1742 – restrictive approach to â€Å"no private interest† not applicable in environmental context, Carnwath LJ refers to Aarhus; ii. May 2008 the report of the Working Group on Access to Environmental Justice Ensuring access to environmental justice in England and Wales chaired by Sullivan J. – Aarhus central to this report and report itself sience driven the case-law; iii.R (Compton) v Wiltshire Primary Care Trust; [2008] CP Rep 36 – a nonenvironmental case but Court of Appeal in relaxing requirements refers to Aarhus and the Sullivan Report; iv. Further consideration in R (Buglife) v Thurrock Thames Gateway Development Corporation [2009] C. P. Rep. 8 – environmental case further considering criteria for grant of a PCO; v. Morgan v Hinton Organics (Wessex) Ltd – see above, further relaxation and citation of Aarhus; vi. Aarhus features prominently in Jackson Report – recommendation for judicial review generally and environmental cases for qualified one way costs shifting. (2) EC law 29. Hugely important – all environmental lawyers must be EC lawyers. 30. The TEU: i.Article 4: the environment an area of shared competence: EC and Member States; ii. Article 11(ex Article 6 TEC): â€Å"Environmental protection requirements must be integrated into the definition and implementation of the Union policies and activities, in particular with a view to promoting sustainable development†; iii. Article 114(3) (ex Article 95 TEC): â€Å"The Commission, in its proposals envisaged in paragraph 1 concerning †¦ environmental prot ection †¦ will take as a base a high level of protection, taking account in particular of any new development based on scientific facts. Within their respective powers, the European Parliament and the Council will also seek to achieve this objective†; iv.Article 191 – 193 (ex Articles 174 – 176 TEC) â€Å"Article 191 (ex Article 174 TEC) Union policy on the environment shall contribute to pursuit of the following objectives: — preserving, protecting and improving the quality of the environment, — protecting human health, — prudent and rational utilisation of natural resources, — promoting measures at international level to deal with regional or worldwide environmental problems, and in particular combating climate change. 2. Union policy on the environment shall aim at a high level of protection taking into account the diversity of situations in the various regions of the Union. It shall be based on the precautionary principle and on the principles that preventive action should be taken, that environmental damage should as a priority be rectified at source and that the polluter should pay. †¦ 3.In preparing its policy on the environment, the Union shall take account of: — available scientific and technical data, — environmental conditions in the various regions of the Union, 12 — the potential benefits and costs of action or lack of action, — the economic and social development of the Union as a whole and the balanced development of its regions. †¦ Article 192 (ex Article 175 TEC) 1. The European Parliament and the Council, acting in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure and after consulting the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, shall decide what action is to be taken by the Union in order to achieve the objectives referred to in Article 191. 2.By way of derogation from the decision-making procedure provided for in paragraph 1 a nd without prejudice to Article 114, the Council acting unanimously in accordance with a special legislative procedure and after consulting the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, shall adopt: (a) provisions primarily of a fiscal nature; (b) measures affecting: — town and country planning, — quantitative management of water resources or affecting, directly or indirectly, the availability of those resources, — land use, with the exception of waste management; (c) measures significantly affecting a Member State’s choice between different energy sources and the general structure of its energy supply. The Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission and after consulting the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, may make the ordinary legislative procedure applicable to the matters referred to in the first subparagraph. 3. General action prog rammes setting out priority objectives to be attained shall be adopted by the European Parliament and the Council, acting in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure and after consulting the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions.The measures necessary for the implementation of these programmes shall be adopted under the terms of paragraph 1 or 2, as the case may be. 4. Without prejudice to certain measures adopted by the Union, the Member States shall finance and implement the environment policy. 5. Without prejudice to the principle that the polluter should pay, if a measure based on the provisions of paragraph 1 involves costs deemed disproportionate for the public authorities of a Member State, such measure shall lay down appropriate provisions in the form of: — temporary derogations, and/or — financial support from the Cohesion Fund set up pursuant to Article 177.Article 193 (ex Article 176 TEC) The protective measures adopted pur suant to Article 192 shall not prevent any Member State from maintaining or introducing more stringent protective measures. Such measures must be compatible with the Treaties. They shall be notified to the Commission. † 31. Numerous Directives (as well as Regulations and Decisions) on environmental law will look at a number below but some examples: i. The Environmental Liability Directive 2004/25; ii. The Environmental Impact Assessment Directive; iii. The Waste Framework Directive; iv. Directive 2000/60 establishing a framework for EC action in the field of water policy. 32. Decisions of the ECJ: hugely important – purposive approach to interpretation especially visible in environmental context. A classic example is in relation to EIA 13Directive â€Å" †¦ the Court has frequently pointed out that the scope of Directive 85/337 is wide and its purpose very broad†. 33. Why EC law so important? Directly effective, and supreme! 34. And there is a further matter – Francovich liability and Kobler †¦ In Cooper v Attorney General [2008] 3 C. M. L. R. 45 Plender J. dismissed the first claim brought in the UK for damages, pursuant to the ECJ’s decision in Case C-224/01 Kobler v Republik Osterreich [2003] ECR I-10239. In that case the ECJ held that a Member State may be answerable in damages for failures by its courts of final instance to give effect to EC law, where the failure amounts to a sufficiently serious breach of EC law.The case arises out of what are alleged to have been sufficiently serious/manifest errors of EC law by the Court of Appeal when dismissing judicial review proceedings commenced by Stephen Cooper and the other then trustees of the CPRE London Branch in October 1999 in respect of the Westfields development: see R. v London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham [2000] 2 C. M. L. R. 1021; [2000] Env. L. R. 549 and [2000] Env. L. R. 532. In dismissing the claim for judicial review the Court of Appeal’s r easoning was in part based on: (i) a finding that EIA could not be required at the reserved matters stage of the planning permission procedure; and (ii) that the EIA Directive did not require the Council to revoke a permission if it was granted in breach of the EIA Directive.Both findings have in effect been subsequently been overruled by the ECJ: see R (Wells) v Secretary of State for Transport, Local Government and the Regions, [2004] ECR I-723 on 7 January 2004; Case C-508/03 Commission v UK (Article 226 (as was) EC proceedings involving, inter alia, Westfields shopping centre); C-590/03 Barker and the House of Lords decision in Barker [2007] 1 AC 470. 35. As well as dismissing the judicial review in 2000 the Court of Appeal awarded against the trustees of the CPRE two sets of costs. The Kobler damages claimed were the recovery of those costs. Plender J. concluded that the case fell â€Å"far below the standard required to constitute a manifest infringement of the applicable law so as to give rise to a claim for damages†.He said: â€Å"[a]ny contention that a court adjudicating at last instance can be said to have made a manifest error of Community law when its judgment is, in some respect, inconsistent with a later judgment of the ECJ is as misconceived as it is inconsistent with the judgment in Kobler. Community law is a system in the process of constant development. This is recognized in the many judgments of the ECJ that refer to â€Å"the subsequent development of Community law applicable to this domain† (see most recently Case C 375/05, Erhard Geuting v Direktor der Landwirtschaftskammer Nordrhein-Westfalen fur den Bereich Landwirtschaft, 4th October 2007,  § 18. ) This being the case, inconsistencies between national decisions and subsequent judgments of the Court of Justice can be expected to arise.Claims based on the Kobler case are to be reserved for exceptional cases, involving errors that are manifest; and in assessing whether t his is the case, account must be taken of the specific characteristics of the judicial function, which entails the application of judgment to the interpretation of provisions capable of bearing more than one meaning. † 36. The Court of Appeal decision awaited, other Kobler damages claims – all in environmental cases pending †¦ 14 (3) Domestic law 37. Primary legislation: the ever growing nature of environmental law: i. 2008: the Climate Change Act 2008; Energy Act 2008, Planning and Energy Act 2008, the Planning Act 2008; Regulatory Enforcement and Sanctions Act 2008; ii. 2009: Green Energy (Definition and Promotion) Act 2009; Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009; iii. 010: Climate Change (Sectoral Targets) Bill; the Consumer Emissions (Climate Change) Bill; the Development on Flood Plains (Environment Agency Powers) Bill; the Energy Bill; the Environmental Protection (FlyTipping Reporting) Bill; Flood and Water Management Bill. 38. Most EC Directives transposed via secondary legislation via EC Act: Westlaw suggests that 596 statutory instruments concerned with the environment have been made since 1 January 2008! 39. Guidance, policies etc: â€Å"soft law† – voluminous in environmental law. 40. Case-law: environmental law occupies Courts from Magistrates Courts to the House of Lords: i. Recent environmental cases before the House of Lords include: R. (Edwards) v Environment Agency (No. 2) [2008] 1 W. L. R. 1587 and Wasa International Insurance Co Ltd v Lexington Insurance Co [2009] 3 W. L. R. 575.And again to illustrate how broad is environmental law: the first was a judicial review challenge to the grant of a pollution prevention control permit to allow the burn shredded and chipped tyres as a partial substitute fuel in cement kilns in Rugby and the second was about the construction and choice of law for a reinsurance contract concerned with environmental damage clean up. ii. Magistrates Court decisions in environmental cases can end up before the ECJ: see Case C-252/05 R. (Thames Water Utilities Ltd) v Bromley Magistrates' Court [2007] 1 W. L. R. 1945 (on the meaning of waste). 41. There have over the years been calls for the setting up of a specialist environmental court, see: H Woolf: ‘Are the Judiciary Environmentally Myopic? (1992) 4 Journal of Env Law 1; Professor Malcolm Grant’s Environmental Court Project: Final Report (2000, DETR) and R Macrory & M Woods Modernising Environmental Justice – Regulation and the Role of the Environmental Tribunal (UCL London, 2003). (4) the interface with human rights 42. The European Convention on Human Rights does not have any explicit environmental rights but there is a growing body of case-law – Article 8, (also Articles 2 and 3): i. Lopez Ostra v Spain 20 EHRR 277 ii. Guerra and others v Italy 26 EHRR 357; 15 iii. S v France 65 DR 250; iv. Hatton v United Kingdom (2003) 37 E. H. R. R. 28. Some key concepts in Environmental law 43. We hav e looked at some key concepts already: public participation; access to environmental information and access to environmental justice. 44.There are two other key concepts both of which we have seen mentioned directly in the text of the TEU: (i) the polluter pays principle; and (ii) the precautionary principle. (1) the polluter pays principle 45. In environmental law this is the principle that the party responsible for producing pollution should also be responsible for paying the damage done as a result of that pollution to the national environment. 46. International Law i. Possible regional ‘customary international law’ as a result of strong support by both EC countries and countries of OECD. ii. OECD early documents on ‘polluter pays’: a. Environment and Economics: Guiding Principle concerning international economic aspects of environmental policies (1972) b.The implementation of the Polluter Pays Principle (1974) c. Recommendation of the Council concerning the Application of the Polluter-Pays Principle to Accidental Pollution (1989) iii. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 1992: Set out in Principle 16 (Rio Declaration was document produced at 1992 UN Conference ‘the Earth Summit’ of 27 principles intended to guide future sustainable development around the world. Some regard the principles as ‘third generation rights’). 47. Applications in countries around the world i. Eco-taxes e. g. US: ‘Gas-Guzzler tax’ where cars with increased pollution pay more. ii. ‘US Superfund’ law requires polluters to pay for cleanup of hazardous waste sites. iii.Extended polluter responsibility – First described by the Swedish government in 1975 and applied by economies where the cost of pollution is internalised into the cost of the product to shift responsibility of dealing with pollution from governments to those responsible. See also OECD document ‘Extended Polluter Responsibi lity’ (2006). 48. EC Law: i. Article 191 TEU (ex Article 174 TEC): â€Å"2. Union policy on the environment shall aim at a high level of protection taking into account the diversity of situations in the various regions of the Union. It shall be based on the 16 ii. iii. iv. v. precautionary principle and on the principles that preventive action should be taken, that environmental damage should as a priority be rectified at source and that the polluter should pay. Sixth Community Environment Action Programme – which covers the period until July 2012 sets out the Polluter Pays Principle. Decision No. 1600/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council, 2002 O. J. (L242) 1. EC Directive 2004/35/EC – Environmental Liability Directive – Embodiment of polluter pays principle and provides that the one responsible for the pollution should pay for the damage caused to the environment. Council Recommendation (75/436/Euratom, ECSC, EEC and the attached Communica tion): As a result of Article 174, the Commission set out the ‘Polluter Pays’ principle as well as a number of exceptions to the Polluter Pays Principle, which are also provided for under Article 175(5) of the Treaty.Commissions’ Technical Paper 1 on the new programming period 2000-2006: Application of the Polluter Pays Principle, differentiating the rates of community assistance for funds – Incorporates the polluter pays principle to community assistance for structural funds and ISPA infrastructure operations. 49. Domestic Law – Contaminated Land Regime (see below) – exemplifies it. Contained in Part 2A of the EPA 1990. Contained in Circular 01/2006, Annex 1, para. 37: â€Å"Under the provisions concerning liabilities, responsibility for paying for remediation will, where feasible, follow the ‘polluter pays’ principle†. Principle referred to in a number of domestic authorities including recently: Corby Group Litigation v Corby DC [2009] EWHC 1944 (TCC) and R. (Thames Water Utilities Ltd) v Bromley Magistrates' Court [2009] Env. L. R. 13. (2) the precautionary principle 50.The Preventative principle: Prevention of environmental harm should be the ultimate goal when taking decisions, actions or omissions with potentially adverse environmental impacts. And an important corollary of this is the precautionary principle: A precautionary approach should be taken whenever there is uncertainty as to whether environmental harm will arise, even if the remedy involves a substantial cost. 51. International law i. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 1992: a. Set out in principle 15. b. In addition, Principle 2 effecting the Preventative principle: States have†¦the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other states or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. ii.Article 2 of the Framework Convention on Clim ate Change 1992: â€Å"The ultimate objective is to achieve the stabilization of a greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere to a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system†. 17 iii. International cases: Trail Smelter Arbitration (US v Canada) 3 RIAA (1941): No state had the right to permit the use of its territory in a way that would cause injury by fumes to the territory, people, or property of another. In this case that Canada should prevent pollution entering the US. iv. Ad hoc expert group established by UNESCO to study the ‘precautionary principle’ and its application. 52. EC Law: i. Article 191 TEU (ex Article 174 TEC): â€Å"2. Union policy on the environment shall aim at a high level of protection taking into account the diversity of situations in the various regions of the Union.It shall be based on the precautionary principle and on the principles that preventive action should be taken, that environmental da mage should as a priority be rectified at source and that the polluter should pay. † ii. European Commission Communication on Precautionary Principle, endorsed by Heads of Government at a General Affairs Council at Nice in December 2000 (COM 2000 1) establishes essence of precautionary Principe and how it should be applied: â€Å"Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation†. iii.Sixth Community Environment Action Programme – which covers the period until July 2012 sets out the Precautionary Principle. Decision No. 1600/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council, 2002 O. J. (L242) 1 iv. Cases, examples: a. Joined Cases T-74/00, 76/00, 83/00, 84/00, 85/00, 132/00, 137/00 & 141/00, Artegodan GmbH v Commission [2002] E. C. R. II-4945, at para. 184: Precautionary principle general principle of EC Law. b. UK v Commission [1998] Case C-180/96: ECJ held EC institutions could take protective measures without having to wait until the reality and seriousness of those risks became fully apparent (in this case Commission had issued decision on emergency measures to protect against BSE which UK was seeking to annul). c.Pfizer Animal Health SA v Council of the European Union [2002] T13-99: CFI affirmed that under the precautionary principle, EC institutions are entitled in the interests of human health to adopt; on the basis of currently incomplete scientific knowledge protective measures and that they have a broad discretion in this respect. v. Application in European directives relating to environment. Examples: a. Directive 2008/ 101/EC on greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme, Recital (19) specifically refers to precautionary principle. b. Directive on Hazardous waste particularly refers to precautionary principle. 53. Domestic Law: i. R v Secretary of State for Trade and Industry ex p Dud deridge [1995] (The Times 26 October 1995): Challenge brought that Secretary of State should 18 ssue regulations restricting electromagnetic fields from electric cables being laid as part of national grid under precautionary principle and Article 130r [now Art. 191] of EC Treaty. Court of Appeal held that precautionary principle had no distinct legal effect in the UK and Article 130r of EC Treaty did not impose such an obligation on the Secretary of State. ii. R (AMVAC Chemical UK Ltd) v The Secretary of State Environment, Food, & Rural Affairs and others [2001] EWHC Admin 1011: Court considered precautionary principle in detail. Crane J state precautionary principle requires that where threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of scientific certainty should not be posed as reasoning for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.Referred to UK Sustainable Development Strategy 1999 referring to precautionary principle, EC communication, Caragena Pr otocol on Biosafety 2000, Article 174(2) EU Treaty (Community policy on the environment†¦. shall be based on the precautionary principle and on the principles that preventative action should be taken’). iii. Now recognised in domestic law: UK Interdepartmental Liaison Group on Risk Assessment (HSE) published paper on ‘The Precautionary Principle: Policy and Application’ iv. Application seen in domestic law: Incorporation in PPS25 (2001), development and flood risk where preventative principle is seen to be of particular importance. v. Included in White Paper 2007 on sustainable development. vi.UK ‘Sustainable development Strategy’ Chapter 4 specifically refers to the precautionary principle (available on defra website). vii. Included in defra ‘Guidelines on Environmental Risk Assessment and Management’ (1. 6: ‘Risk Management and the precautionary principle’). An introduction to the main areas of environmental law 54. T his can be no more than the briefest of introductions: (1) Air Quality 55. Human activities across the spectrum produce pollutants that affect the quality of the air around us, ranging from the everyday of driving to complicated industrial processes producing highly toxic fumes. Regulatory measures are put forward as a response to try and regulate the production of air pollutants that are produced.Initially there was a more reactive approach of addressing specific problems as they arose. Recently, with increasing concerns about air quality and climate change there is a more proactive and integrated approach to regulating the emission of pollutants. 56. Sources of Air Quality Law: i. International Law: Air pollution is not confined to boundaries – pollution caused by one country affects the air quality of another’s. International law has therefore long been concerned with pollution of the atmosphere. International treaties concluded tend to be framework treaties setting out broad principles which can then be implemented with more detail into domestic laws. Sources include: 19 a.The 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution – Imposes obligations to endeavour to limit air pollution using the ‘best available technology’ feasible. Followed by protocols on the reduction of specific pollutants. b. The 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone layer – Takes Action against activities that were likely to modify the ozone layer. Followed by the Montreal Protocol setting concrete targets and the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol aiming setting emissions ceilings for particularly acidic and ground-level ozone emissions, namelySO2, NOx, VOCs and ammonia. c. The 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change – Starts with the position of ‘common but differentiated responsibility’ imposing lesser burdens on developing countries in order to allow sustainable development.Stabilize greenhouse ga s emissions at a level that would not interfere with the climate system of food production. Provides for national inventories of emissions, integration of climate change issues. d. The Kyoto Protocol – Sets binding reduction targets for parties signed up to it (listed in Annex I). Adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005. Sets out specific reduction targets for different countries in relation to six gases: CO2, NOx, HFC’s, PFCs, methane, ground-level ozone. ii. EC Law: a. Ambient Air Quality Directive (2008/50/EC) – Aimed at defining principles of a common strategy to assess and define objectives for ambient air quality.Identified 13 ambient air pollutants for which various forms of specific controls were to be introduced under daughter directives. Controls mainly to take the form of limit values, target values, and alert thresholds. Implemented by Air Quality Standard Regulations 2007. Regime originated with Air Quality Framework Directive (96/62/EC). 200 8 Directive consolidates existing legislation apart from 4th Daughter Directive, and must be implemented by 11 June 2001. b. Daughter directives: 1. 1st Daughter Directive, 1999/30/EC: Set limit values for SO2, NO2, NOx, PM and lead; 2. 2nd Daughter Directive, 2000/69/EC: Set limit values for benzene and CO2 3. 3rd Daughter Directive, 2002/3/EC: Set objectives and thresholds for concentrations of ozone. 4. th Daughter Directive, 2004/107/EC: Set target values for concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, nickel and benzo(a)pyrene. 5. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive (IPPC) (96/61/EC) – Creates a regime for controlling polluting releases from certain industrial activities to air, water and land. Implemented by UK EPR 2007 (see below) 20 6. National Emissions Ceilings Directives (Directive 2001/81/EC) – Effects the Gothenburg Protocol by setting ceilings for each MS for emissions of Ammonia, SO2, NOx and VOCs which must have been met by 2010. Implemented b y The National Emissions Ceilings Regulations 2002. UK must report emissions of four NECD Pollutants annually, DEFRA produces yearly emission data. 7.Large Combustion Plant Directive (2001/80/EC) – Controls emissions of SO2, N0x and dust from large combustion plants with aim of reducing acidification by providing emission limit values for such pollutants. 8. Solvent Emissions Directive (1999/13/EC) – Limits emissions of VOCs in environment by requiring permits for such emissions in specified activities and installations. Amended by Paints Directive. Effected by EP Regulations, Schedule 14. 9. Petrol Vapour Recovery Directive – Aimed at controlling emissions from motor vehicles. Stage II PVR now proposed for controlling emissions when motor vehicles refuelling. 10. Paints Directive (2004/42/EC) – Limitation of emissions of VOC’s in certain paints.Furthers objective of reducing VOC emissions by setting limits for VOC use. Implemented in UK by Volatil e Organic Compounds in Paints, Varnishes and Vehicle Refinishing Production Regulations 2005. 11. Sulphur Control of Liquid Fuels Directive (1999/32/EC), objective to reduce emissions of SO2 resulting from combustion of heavy fuel oil and gas oil by limiting sulphur content in these oils. Implemented by Sulphur Content of Liquid Fuels (England and Wales) Regulations 2007. 12. Waste Incineration Device (WID) (2000/76/EC) – Applies to most activities that involve burning waste, including burning waste to fuels. Regulates standards and methodologies for incineration of waste. 13.The European Pollutants Release and Transfer Register. Commission Decision 2000/479/EC – Provides for a European register of air emissions, allows direct comparison of air emissions across all member states. Member states have to produce a three yearly report on emissions to air and water at industrial installations if certain threshold values exceeded which are then recorded and maintained on the register. c. Domestic Law 1. Environment Permitting Regulations 2007 (see below) – Brings series of environmental controls together, including PPC and waste management licensing by requiring that an environmental permit must be granted for operation of a ‘regulated facility’.Permit requires regulators to exercise permit-related functions to deliver obligations with various 21 directives include large combustion plan directive, solvent emissions directive, waste incineration directive and petrol vapour recover directive. 2. Useful Guidance: DEFRA: Environmental Permitting General Guidance Manual on Policy and Procedures for A2 and B Installations; 3. National Air Quality Strategy: a. UK Air Quality Strategy: Strategy published by the Secretary of State containing policies with respect to assessment or management of quality of air. Required by s. 80(1) of Environment Act 1995. Sets specific objectives for different air pollutants. b.Local Air Quality Management: E nvironment Act 1995 imposes duty on LA’s to conduct reviews of present and future air quality within area, formulating ‘air quality management area’ (AQMA) where objectives not being met and formulating action plans if necessary. c. In addition: Advice in PS23 on relationship between determination of planning applications and pollution control (paras 8 to 10 and Annex 1). EIA requires inter alia air quality assessment. (2) Climate Change 57. This is of course big news: i. The Kyoto Protocol – Sets binding carbon reduction commitments for states. ii. The EU ETS Scheme – Directive 2009/29/EC (replacing Directive 2003/87/EC) implemented in UK by Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Scheme Regulations 2005: a.On 1 January 2005 the EU ETS came into force. It is the largest multicountry, multi-sector greenhouse gas emission trading scheme worldwide. In total approximately 11,500 installations are presently covered by the EU ETS and it accounts for nearly 45% of total CO2 emissions, and about 30% of all greenhouse gases in the EU (see EU Action against Climate Change: EU Emissions Trading – An Open Scheme Promoting Global Innovation, CEC, Brussels). b. The EU ETS is the key policy introduced by the EU to help reduce the EU’s greenhouse gas emissions. The importance of the EU ETS is further emphasised by the recitals to Directive 2003/87 (see recitals (1) and (2)).Article 1 of Directive 2003/87/EC states: â€Å"This Directive establishes a scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community (hereinafter referred to as the â€Å"Community scheme†) in order to promote reductions of greenhouse gas emissions in a cost-effective and economically efficient manner. † The importance of the EU ETS has further been confirmed by the Court in Case T-178/05 UK v Commission; Case T-374/04 Germany v Commission and Case T-387/04 EnBW: see especially in Case T- 22 374/04 Germany v Commission paragraphs 1 - 5. In his opinion in Case C-127/07 Arcelor Advocate-General Maduron referred to the EU ETS as being â€Å"one of the cornerstones of Community environmental protection policy†. c.Under the Kyoto Protocol the EU is required to make an 8% reduction in emissions compared to 1990 by the first Kyoto Protocol commitment period (2008 – 2012)4. d. Recital (10) to Council Decision 2002/358/EC concerning the approval, on behalf of the European Community, of the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC and the

Care-Giver Burden Essay

Healthcare in America is an issue of finances. Healthcare is an issue, especially for the financially strapped family. The following paper will focus on the care-giver burden of a patient who cannot afford to be taken care of because of lack of insurance or lack of funds in general. In the following pages care-giver burden will be addressed using several articles concerning care-giver burden and three theorists; Martha E. Rogers, Imogene King, and Dorothy E. Johnson. The articles are in design stressing the issue of guilt and depression when a family decides they don’t have the time or the money to keep a loved one at home and must face putting them in a care facility (Sanders article Shouldering the Burden of Care). Other articles address the issue of keeping a family member at home (child) and the upkeep cost that entails such as home health aid cost, medications, or leaving a job (Wilson, Leslie S. et al. The Economic Burden of Home Care for Children with HIV and Other Chronic Illnesses). Also, the review of patient care for nurses and the burden of lack of authority in administration this presents is another form of care-giver burden (Welchman, Jennifer & Glenn G. Griener, Patient Advocacy and Professional Associations: Individual and Collective Responsibilities). Each of these issues involves a direct relationship to the patient and their concerns for the burden they may become for their family, or for themselves in regards with money and insurance. There are many facets to unravel in the primary care system but for this paper, care-giver burden is the primary concept in terms of money. Three Approaches to the Concern Approach of Martha E. Rogers. Roger’s theory involves four postulates: energy fields, openness, pattern, and pandimensionality. (Barrett et. Al 2000). Each of these postulates involves the client’s concern over their health and the relationships they form with not only the nurses but with their own families. Rogers goes on to explain that power is at the core of each of these relationships, â€Å"(power)†¦is the capacity to participate knowingly in the nature of change characterizing the continuous patterning of the human and environmental fields. The observable, measurable pattern manifestations of power are awareness, choices, freedom to act intentionally, and involvement in creating change† (Barrett et al. ) Most care-giving authority is given to nurses; both in a hospital setting and during stay at home cases. The preceding concept or the patient is its important to have a strong trusting relationship with the care-giver in order for them to feel more comfortable and also feel their issues and concerns are being heard. If the patient does not feel comfortable then the care-giver burden becomes apparent in scowling-unreceptive-to-therapy patients. However, in Welchman and Griener’s article, Patient Advocacy and Professional Associations, a rising concern over nurses’ burden when taking care of patients begins to be seen, â€Å"†¦nurses are being taught to be patient advocates and both nurses and patients are the worse for it. The nursing profession’s redefinition of the nurse’s role from loyal handmaid to patient advocate in the 1980s was supposed to protect patients by empowering nurses to think and act autonomously in their dealings with other health professionals. †¦individual nurses have been burdened with a responsibility that most professions assign†¦to their professional associations. It is not a responsibility that individuals can readily fulfill. Unless or until the duty of advocacy is taken off the shoulders of individual nurses and returned to the professional bodies that represent them, nurses and patients will continue to suffer unnecessarily†(2005). The nurses’ role in patient care involves everything a patient needs or may potentially need (feeding, bathing, bathroom visits, company) and according to Rogers’ theory making the patient part of the active choice of their own health. Therefore, in the context of this theory there is no control, because control is not held one over the other (nurse over patient) but power is shared, as Rogers’ theory states, â€Å"†¦people can knowingly participate in creating their reality by actualizing some of their potentials rather than others. In this theory there is no control; control is an illusion since other persons or groups and their environments are likewise simultaneously also participating in what is being created†. Each of these duties cannot be accomplished without proper support from family/administration, and without this support and the lack of performance in a nurse’s duty a patient will lapse in trust. This is the contention in the make-up of care-giver burden; nurses cannot fulfill their role to maximum potential without the backing of the hospital rules. The burden is twofold for the nurse and the patient. As Welchman and Griener state in a final cul-de-sac, â€Å"Advocacy for improvements in access to and deliver of health care is best viewed as a collective responsibility of health professions owed to society as a whole, not as the sole province of individual practitioners†(2005). Approach Imogene King. King’s theory lies in the clients’ perception of self. This perception ranges from their body image to their own growth and development before and after surgery or during care-giver visits. As such, the crux of King’s theory is that of communication. Her theory subsists of human beings as, â€Å"†¦open systems interacting with the environment† (Williams, Imogene King’s Interacting Systems Theory, 2001). Throughout the relationship of nurses and clients communication is the key to better health. This occurs through the patient forming several relationships with different people around them; these include personal systems, interpersonal systems, and social systems. Thus, King’s ultimate goal stated in the theory is goal attainment. However, there are outside factors that stand in the way of working and healthy relationships. In Wilson et al. ’s study of patient care for ill and HIV children the stats for financing reflects a tremendous burden, â€Å".. in-home care for ill children (ranging from approximately $19,000 to $36000) is higher than that of hiring caregivers for healthy children (approximately $10,000)† (2005). This burden is further emphasized for the family if they are not equipped to pay a professional care-giver and are dependent upon themselves for such care; this issue raises the other issues of job attendance (some families pass up promotions, decline extra working hours, or quit their jobs entirely in order to care for the ill which makes the financial burden that much more potent). These numbers also reflect the elderly who are put in homes or whose family members choose to have them stay at home. Thus, it is important within King’s theory that each relationship remains free from outside stress factors in order for the recovery of the patient to be successful. The dyad of the nurse and the patient must remain free from concerns of money, otherwise the nurse is seen as merely a worker and not a concerned care-giver and the patient is stressed because they may not have coverage for certain operations or insurance to properly cover the care-giver’s assistance. In King’s theory, communication led to recover, â€Å"King believed that interactions between the nurse and the client lead to transactions that relate in goal attainment. Furthermore, King proposed that through mutual goal setting and goal attainment, transactions result in enhanced growth and development for the client† (Williams). Therefore, the issue of money cannot come between the dyad.

Bowen Theory: Emotional Cutoff. Retrieved

I definitely agree with many of the observations that Bowen made through his theoretical framework. If there is one concept that has stood out from among the rest it is none other than the concept of Emotional Cutoff. Bowen refers to this as an individual’s manner of managing many of his critically unresolved issues that he has had with his direct personal family or his family of origin (Bowen, 2004).Painful experiences with the family are â€Å"better† managed in the present when the members concerned are either being dealt with in a superficial way especially where emotional or sensitive concerns are the issue or the person chooses to distance himself from his source of pain by leaving or refusing contact with those members of his family (Bowen, 2004). Every human experience involves a causative factor that produces a kind of response. In explaining the behavior of people, we start our description with reference to some kind of active driving force: the individual see ks, the individual wants, the individual fears.Various psychologists describe motivation, in other words, as the driving force behind our behavior (Atkinson, et al. 1983). This is essentially very familiar to me especially that my family seemed to be in constant denial (especially both of my parents) about the failure of our home life. We were together but we existed in pieces because daily my father was an epitome of someone whose inner life seemed to be torn in disarray due to worry, unresolved anger and insecurity. He had started the vicious cycle of pain then emotional cutoff and on and on.He had distanced himself so much that he never bothered to attend to any of our graduation rites and he was forever busy, that was what he said. Eventually this spilled over to my relationship with my spouse and children; I tended to somehow demand things that were more reminiscent of those days with my family at home. I was fortunate enough that these days my spouse is a fierce watchdog over my tendencies and helped me overcome my disconnectedness which had started to threaten even to overwhelm my family as well at the early part of our marriage.

706 discussion 6 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

706 discussion 6 - Assignment Example Similarly, the skills can equip clinicians to manage any superiority attitude among physicians and facilitate cohesion in teams. Developing courses for raining on the skills and establishing the courses as core courses for health professional students is therefore a necessary step to preparing the students (Lingard, et al., 2012). Organizing for interactive forums for students in the health profession is also likely establish bonds among the different health professions and therefore promote effective teams among the professions. Evidence based research on disadvantages of hierarchies and advantages of shared leadership approach and advocacy for a transition from the hierarchical perspective are some of the strategies for promoting shared leadership approach. A study by Sterrett (2010) that aimed at developing a theory supports the research-based approach and advocacy for developed recommendations can facilitate changes. Responsibilities, in a collaborative environment, should be shared on individuals’ competencies because this promotes specialization and efficiency. My clinical experience has witness physicians assume patient advocacy roles. Sterrett, S. (2010). Becoming an interprofessional community of practice: A qualitative study of an interpersonal fellowship. Journal of Research in Interprofessional Practice and Medicine, 1(3),

Does Class Really Matter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Does Class Really Matter - Essay Example Class and money are intertwined since money plays a major role in the identification of a class. This identification, however, is not accurate as the value of humans is equated with money. For instance, the public identifies members of a class by weighing their worth in terms of income and monetary possessions. As much as we would like to shun the class system, the fact remains that it exists and has continued to manifest its effects upon each American who holds the vision of living the American dream. There are various levels of stratification, with a general upper, middle and lower classes. Thus, individuals are limited to interaction within their classes meaning chances of cross-class associations are very thin. This same class segregation has been applied in housing and neighborhoods where each residential zone belongs are occupied by members of the same class. Such has led to a segregated society with less sense of community and togetherness as the classes do not help each other. This segregation as we have learned is called classism. According to Classism.org, classism is the assigning individuals characteristics systematically based on their ability and worth leading to social classes and differential treatments (Classism.org). Classism has a great effect on how individuals view themselves, for example, those of lower social class perceive themselves as less fortunate and without any worth to the society. Another aspect the affects people’s perception of themselves a nd others is the nature of the job. For instance, people with jobs of higher status not only earn respect from the society, but also gain self-respect and high self-esteem. Such jobs are also bound to make one happier because of better living standards. It is evident that we, Americans, have come a long way in capitalism. Our culture likes ranking persons in orders of ‘significance’, and our culture enables these classified ‘significant’ individuals flaunt about what

Medical Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Medical Report - Essay Example The cause of chronic pancreatitis includes cystic fibrosis, Hypercalcemia, hyperlipidemia or hypertriglyceridemia. Pancreas divisum which is a congenital anomaly is considered to cause pancreatitis. However, explanation as to how is not yet known. Signs and Symptoms for acute pancreatitis, present fever, nausea, and vomiting. On physical examination, abdominal pain and tenderness is evident. Symptoms of chronic pancreatitis may involve upper abdominal pain, indigestion, oily smelly stool, and weight loss. Diabetes may also develop thus insulin is given. On physical examination, the patient’s abdomen shows distension. Jaundice and dyspnea is also observed thus a stethoscope is used to assess irritation of the diaphragm. If palpation of the abdomen shows pain and a feeling of bloating, it suggests pancreatic pseudocyst which could be further confirmed with a CT scan. Laboratory tests to confirm diagnosis may include serum amylase and lipase. Techniques like therapeutic endoscopi c retrograde cholangiopancreatography( ERCP) and endoscopy are done to view organs involved. Prognosis is good if the cause is eliminated. However, for patients with complicated conditions can recover under intensive care. References P G Lankisch, P., Droge, M., & Gottesleben. F., (1995). Drug induced acute pancreatitis: incidence and severity, Gut. 37:565-567 Oreily, D.A., & Kingsnorth, A.N., (2001).

Reduction of carbon dioxide emissions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Reduction of carbon dioxide emissions - Essay Example Natural disasters have blanketed the world in the recent years. Every year, many areas are flooded with water which is a potential threat to the life of animals and humans. Many people lose their lives in tsunamis. Glaciers that are melting away are depriving many animal species of their habitat. Glaciers are the primary source of food and shelter for polar bears. The rate at which glaciers are melting away presently will soon make the polar bears extinct from Earth completely. Also, thousands of cattle are drowned in floods whenever they occur. In addition to that, many people die of severe heat in the summer season every year because every summer season is getting much hotter than the preceding one. Air pollution has made people acquire many diseases. Thus, global warming is a big threat to life on Earth in many ways. Increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere is the fundamental cause of global warming. CO2 is the fundamental greenhouse gas that causes the temperature to rise. In order to reduce the global warming, it is imperative that level of CO2 emissions is reduced. Two-thirds of the total electricity in the world is produced from fossil fuels which, along with doing this job, make one-third of the total CO2 emission in the world. Along with CO2, many other greenhouse gases are also produced from the fossil fuels that include but are not limited to methane and CO. Nature has blessed us with trees that consume CO2 to produce oxygen, but the sad part of the story is that trees are also decreasing in number with every passing day as more products are being made of wood. It takes much more time for a tree to grow than the rate at which they are being cut. As a result of this, the fundamental source of consumption of CO2 and reduction of its level in the atmosphere is readily vanishing. Thus, the level of CO2 in the atmosphere is increasing. Owing to the dreadful consequences of the increased levels of CO2 in the atmosphere as dis cussed above, there is dire need to reduce its level. In order to make the world a habitable place for the future generations, measures need to be taken before it is too late. This can fundamentally be achieved by reducing the emission of CO2 which requires a combined effort from all countries. Technologies to reduce CO2 emissions: In order to reduce the CO2 emissions in the atmosphere, the first and foremost step that needs to be taken is the introduction of renewable energy in the transport sector. There is dire need to integrate the transport sector into the energy system in order to obtain maximum effect. CO2 emissions can be reduced in a lot of ways by controlling the transportation on land, sea and air. With every passing day, more and more cars are crowding the streets all over the world. The cars can be made quite fuel efficient in the least time. In order to solve the global energy system, the electric cars can be charged with the help of wind turbines. This would be a long term solution of the problem. Hydrogen can be used in place of fuel to drive the electric cars. Another way to reduce the CO2 emissions is by way of road charges. There is need to determine alternatives to the conventional sources of fuel so as to minimize the effect of supply shortages on the transport activities. Diesel engines have conventionally been made use of for the transportation on highways, though they release a lot of CO2 into the atmosphere. It

Needs Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Needs Assessment - Essay Example In order to effectively utilize modern technologies, user manuals become an essential part of business needs because it facilitates employees with certain information related to the proper process of utilization of technological features or applications. Consequently, through the gained learning from user manual related to the operational process of a technological application, employees could support and be beneficial to the organization to achieve the organizational goals through performing effectively or systematically. Moreover, satisfying employees through providing the primary requirements by the organization also becomes an essential need for the organization in order to increase commitment of the employees. Audience Audience in this particular circumstance is the employees. Employees play an effective role for the organization by helping and leading the organization to serve in the market with its products and services. With the consideration to this aspect, an organization s hould motivate its employees to perform better with the assigned tasks. In order to motivate its employees and maintain their work-life balance, the organization should implement new technologies i.e. ... fore starting the work assigned by the organization, employees should study the operational objectives of the organization in order to perform effectively. Situation Performing in accordance with the organizational requirements and considered or implemented modern technologies, the employees could face certain difficulties, i.e. lack of proper operational knowledge regarding usage of MS Office and office e-mail system. Lack of adequate knowledge related to the identified technologies refers to the situation in which employees are unfamiliar with proper functionalities of the undertaken technologies by the organization while serving and supporting the organization to achieve the objectives effectively. Furthermore, it is also observed from the interview that certain number of employees also face various problems regarding proper utilization of the applications because the employees have got a lack of information regarding the appropriate operation usage. Moreover, the problems can be identified as lack of knowledge regarding adaptability of the applications, frequent occurrence of errors while handling the applications and inadequate knowledge regarding the features of the applications. Goals Every organization has certain goals while operating in the market. The primary goals of organization are to assist the prevailing customers of the market by meeting their requirements through providing quality products and services along with maximizing the organizational profits. Furthermore, other fundamental goals of organization can be identified as facilitating usage of modern technology and innovative ideas in accordance with changing needs of globalization. The goals of organization are to provide facilities to the employees, such as insurance, better salary, and good

Response of chapter 2 of Inside Rikers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Response of chapter 2 of Inside Rikers - Essay Example Confinement may seem like the easiest way to control crime and punish offenders, but it is not entirely effective in reforming criminals. This chapter makes an interesting point that solitary confinement can be one of the most inhumane psychological punishments for criminals. Criminals are put in a prison inside a prison with almost all of their liberties controlled. It is a double-edged sword which, unfortunately, reinforces criminal behavior. Wynn stressed: â€Å"Solitary confinement itself can cause a very specific kind of psychiatric syndrome.† She is saying that solitary confinement should be considered as a strong independent variable for â€Å"random violence and self-mutilation, suicidal behavior...† She gives examples of how the CPSU breeds the most violent behaviors and thoughts among criminals which Captain talks about. Captain admits that isolation can turn criminals into worse personalities. He knows how unsafe it is, for instance, to have a normal life out side prison, knowing that any ex-convict might get back on COs. Through these examples, Wynn and the Captain make a good point on how detaching inmates from social contact and treating them like animals intensify their criminal attitudes and behaviors. Corrections officers are human beings too who are trapped in prison like inmates and they often suffer from the psychological and social effects of their jobs. William West, a former CO, said: â€Å"It’s the dirtiest, most thankless job in law enforcement† (Wynn). Wynn also cited a joke that accurately portrays the effects of this job on COs: â€Å"What’s the first three things you get when you become a CO?† The answer: ‘A car. A gun. A divorce.’† Harry, one of the COs, provides an example of a CO, the first man to be punished with death penalty. Harry has a calm attitude towards COs who turn into criminals themselves, as if he knows that such consequences of

Success of Marriott in the Hospitality Research Paper

Success of Marriott in the Hospitality - Research Paper Example As a payback to the company, Marriott’s employees provide great service and satisfy Marriott’s customers; thereby providing a type of symbiotic relationship. Marriott’s mission thereby works to lead a company-wide approach to their vision. This is but one of the reasons why Marriott is able to provide effective progress to be the best hospitality company in the world and create a public perception that this company builds its corporation in positive ways. The success of Marriott in the hospitality world does not come only from the dedication of its employees, however. Besides showing a great deal of concern for these shareholders, Marriott is an innovative corporation. In this way, the film follows the trend of recent innovations and technological changes in the current world. By being flexible to transform their regulation and company regulation based on the recent global economic situation, hospitality trends, and behaviors of the employees, the firm has stayed fresh whereas others have faltered. The board of the directors of Marriott believes that the world is changing, thus Marriott has to follow suit if it intends on staying competitive. After doing research on final presentation in my ethics class, there was a lot of interesting facts concerning Marriott; however, for purposes of this paper, this author will be addressing but two of these major positive factors in detail. Additionally, a scandal will also be discussed. In addition, besides discussing those positive factors that have briefly been referenced above, my group research shows Marriott has committed into fraud scandal. First, with all, the very basic aspect of building a big company is encouraging their workers to put their best on doing jobs.  

Organic Chemistry Aricle Critique - New Compound Synthesized Research Paper

Organic Chemistry Aricle Critique - New Compound Synthesized - Research Paper Example The compound is an aromatic ketone having a phenyl group directly attached to the carbonyl group; its chemical formula is C9H10O and its structural formula is COCH3C6H4CH3. Reduction occurs either by metal hydrides such as LAH or by hydrogen; ketones are reduced to secondary alcohols. The statement in the article is arguable because reduction and not oxidation occurs with either compound yielding a secondary alcohol. Catalytic hydrogenation or reduction by hydrogen is synonymous names for the same reaction; which is valid. Tollen's reagent is a reagent used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones. Ketones do not react with the reagent which the author failed to demonstrate. P-methyacetophenone reacts to form a tertiary alcohol with ethylmagnesium bromide; this point is accurate. The compound reacts with Grignard reagent giving magnesium alkoxide which then yields the tertiary alcohol when water is added to it. All in all, p-metyacetophenone is a compound used in perfumes and its synthesis is of great importance for the chemists. Calibrated Peer Review (CPR) Site. 31 Nov. 2000. The National Scrutinizer. Volume 88, Number 9. A New Compound Has Been Synthesized! 04 Mar. 2009.

Mandatory Second Language Essay Example for Free

Mandatory Second Language Essay As I was getting ready to go out, â€Å"Made in China† tag of my shirt caught my attention. My shirt traveled many miles to reach in my hands, I said to myself. Then I looked at my shoes; they were made in Bangladesh. I called my computer tech; I was transferred in India. For a moment, I thought I was a citizen of a globalized society where borders did not exist. As a matter of fact, U.S companies invest more than . 5 trillion a year to do business in other countries while foreign companies invest more than $2.3 trillion a year to do business in the United States (Williams, 2013, Intro to Management, 154). Our task is to set those numbers higher, which might not be an easy job if you don’t speak other countries language as they speak English. In order for a new generation to face globalization challenges, second language should be mandatory for all U.S students. As we grow global more foreign business in coming to U.S soil, and more U.S companies are reaching international market. I also hear people complaining of high levels of unemployment. The company I work for is aiming to open another 500 hotels in Asia region. Bilinguals are in demand. Most of the qualified trainers must speak another language besides English. Preferably, Chinese or Indian. There is a demand for workers, but skill needed to do the job is missing. The company I work for has signed 21 new deals in China during 2010, compared with 18 all during 2009. â€Å"And development keeps growing,† says Harris Chan, Starwoods vice president of operations support for China and Taiwan. Not only that, but according to the standards and policies of the company, every hotel should have a Chinese speaker in the team. Now I have a dilemma; should I spend 18 months going for my Master’s or should I use that time learning Chinese? Both options are valid for my working career. As I am working for a hotel industry, training is part of the job. The company sent me in Europe for a job training. A week in Barcelona! I struggled so hard to  sharpen my Spanish, before getting to Spain. The city was beautiful and impressive, but it would be better travel experience for me if would be able to tell the waiter how I wanted my eggs cooked, or how to ask for the bus station. What made me feel comfortable was the team I was working with. Everyone spoke another language besides their native ones. They all spoke English. I felt not confident using my broken English accent Spanish. I admit it was uncomfortable than everyone else spoke another language (maybe two) and I was the only one feeling comfortable only in English language. In fact, Spanish, Chinese, or any other language is not a bad idea in the country of melting pot. According to a study of an educational institution on 2010, below are the top ten foreign languages spoken in high schools of New York: America is the land of immigrants. Along with their traditions, immigrants bring their languages also. That is part of the American culture also. It is our job to maintain it. Not everyone that comes in the U.S soil speaks English. Does that mean, we have to shut the communication with the new immigrants just because of the language barriers? We all agree that, building walls is not an option. From the census of 2013, the governmental authorities stated that â€Å"As the nation continues to be a destination for people from other lands, this pattern of language diversity will also likely continue. I believe that, separating from social events just because of the language barrier it is unhealthy for the overall society. Isolation makes people unsocial and less active in their communities, which leads them on building walls instead of bridges. Social health depends on proper communication. Our future generations need to fit in the multicultural and global environment. Our communities grow healthier and stronger is we are capable of speaking each others language. In a conclusion, I would say that a second language is a need for our generations. The latest global business events are requesting it, by developing new multilingual markets. A good portion of the US trade is done with non-English spoken countries. Our future business achievements will depend on how well we will be able to communicate. Second, the American youth is facing an intellectual competition with foreign  counterparts on language skills. While the average European teenager speaks two languages, most of the teenagers in the homeland speak only English. It looks like we are falling behind. Third, diversity plays a role in national and global business growth. Therefore, diverse language environment is common. Being able to speak more than English, it is not just a skill but a requirement in the new era of business globalization. Reference Lavrusik, V. (2010, April 4). Top 10 languages spoken by students at Manhattan International. http://archives.jrn.columbia.edu/coveringed/schoolstories10/2010/04/top-10-languages-spoken-by-students-at-manhattan-international/index.html Ryan, C. (2013, August 1). Language Use in the United States: 2011. http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf Williams, C. (2013). MGMT3 (5th ed). Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning Yu, R. (2010, October 26). Foreign hotels flock to China. https://web-b-ebscohost-com.libdatab.strayer.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=8sid=684e6cc8-a980-4638bf02a989aee7%40sessionmgr110hid=116bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=a9hAN=J0E369281117410

Le sport comme support marketing

Le sport comme support marketing THESE: LE MARKETING SPORTIF Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? I. Champ de la recherche De nos jours, une entreprise a pour objectif premier de se positionner sur un marchà © en tentant de rà ©pondre au plus juste à   la demande de ses clients, qui sont de plus en plus exigeants. Le marketing est une fonction essentielle dans une organisation, il crà ©e de la valeur grà ¢ce à   de multiples techniques et stratà ©gies. Il permet dinfluencer le consommateur pour que celui-ci choisisse un produit ou un service plutà ´t quun autre. Le marketing constitue un outil indispensable à   lentreprise qui a vu son champ daction sà ©tendre considà ©rablement depuis ces dernià ¨res annà ©es. Jai choisi daxer mon choix sur le marketing appliquà © au secteur sportif. En effet, dans la socià ©tà © du XXIà ¨ sià ¨cle, le sport prend une place importante car il và ©hicule de nombreuses valeurs et gà ©nà ¨re, pour les entreprises, une forte puissance de communication. Depuis la moitià © du XIXà ¨me sià ¨cle, lapparition du sport moderne a permis de faire comprendre aux entreprises limportance de ce phà ©nomà ¨ne. Le sport occupe une place considà ©rable depuis larrivà ©e des lois sur larà ©duction du temps de travail. Les individus jouissent dà ¨s lors dun temps libre plus importante et peuvent pratiquer de nouveaux loisirs. Le mot  «sport », qui signifie  «divertissement » en anglais, fait prà ©cisà ©ment partie de ces loisirs. Le sport peut à ªtre pratiquà © individuellement ou collectivement et il sadresse à   tous, quel que soit là ¢ge, la catà ©gorie socioprofessionnelle, ou mà ªme, en quelque sorte, là ©tat de santà © de lindividu. En effet, il existe des sports pour les handicapà ©s. Selon la Charte Olympique,  «la pratique du sport est un droit de lhomme. Tout individu doit avoir la possibilità © de pratiquer le sport selon ses besoins ». Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Il existe un à ©ventail trà ¨s large dactività ©s physiques, permettant à   beaucoup de personnes dexercer un sport. Aujourdhui,le sport fait intà ©gralement partie de notre socià ©tà ©et il và ©hicule de nombreuses valeurs positives. Cest pourquoi il reprà ©sente un moteur à ©conomique important. Eichberg (1979) parle à ©galement de  «marchandisation  » du sport en ce sens que le commerce des articles de sport se dà ©veloppe de plus en plus. Face à   cette ampleur du sport dans notre socià ©tà ©, le marketing sest dà ©veloppà © progressivement. Cest le football qui fut le premier sport à   utiliser le marketing sportif avec larrivà ©e des joueurs professionnels. Ainsi, le sport est devenu un business à   part entià ¨re. Diffà ©rents acteurs utilisent le sport comme support marketing: Ø Les organismes sportifs: les ligues, les fà ©dà ©rations, les clubs peuvent à ªtre inclus. Ils mettent en place des stratà ©gies de marque qui permettent daugmenter leur notorià ©tà © et de vendre des produits dà ©rivà ©s. Les exemples les plus significatifs sont ceux des clubs de football comme lOlympique Lyonnais, le Paris Saint Germain†¦ Ø Les à ©quipementiers sportifs: ils sappuient sur le sport et les sportifs dans le but damà ©liorer leur image de marque et daugmenter les ventes. Les marques telles que Nike, Adidas et Reebok sont les plus connues du grand public. Ø Les mà ©dias sportifs: ils diffusentles à ©và ©nements sportifs et transmettent de linformation en relation directe avec le sport. Le quotidien lEquipe en est un exemple. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Aujourdhui, certaines marques nayant aucun lien direct avec le sport, utilisent pourtant celui-ci pour accroà ®tre leur image. En effet, les grands champions sont une valeur ajoutà ©e pour lentreprise car les consommateurs peuvent sidentifier en eux. Laure Manaudou, par exemple, est là ©gà ©rie de la marque Lancel, dans le secteur du luxe. II. Justification de la problà ©matique Le phà ©nomà ¨ne du sport a vu son image se transformer au cours de ses dernià ¨res annà ©es en passant de loisir à   business. Les entreprises ont compris que le sport pouvait les aider à   accroà ®tre leur notorià ©tà ©, à   modifier leur image, à   booster leurs ventes et donc à   augmenter leur chiffre daffaire. Le marketing sportif à ©tant un sujet trà ¨s large, je me suis intà ©ressà © à   la faà §on dont les marques pouvaient lutiliser. Les entreprises peuvent tout dabord utiliser le marketing sportif comme outil de communication, cest-à  -dire, tout ce qui constitue informations, messages ou signaux à ©mis par lentreprise en direction de ses publics. De multiples canaux de communication sont empruntà ©s dans le but de faire passer les messages : les mass mà ©dias, le packaging de lemballage des produits, les opà ©rations promotionnelles, les relations publiques, les à ©và ©nements, etc. Restà ©e longtemps marginale, la communication constitue dà ©sormais une des plus grosses parts du budget de la plupart des entreprises et elle occupe ainsi une place trà ¨s importante au sein des socià ©tà ©s. Considà ©rà ©e comme un investissement à   long terme, les techniques de communication ont beaucoup à ©voluà © au cours du XXà ¨ sià ¨cle pour devenir finalement irremplaà §ables. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Les marques utilisent gà ©nà ©ralement le sponsoring pour crà ©er un lien direct avec le consommateur. Le parrainage peut à ªtre soit tà ©là ©visà ©, soit directement avec le sportif ou une à ©quipe sportive. Le sponsoring sportif a plusieurs objectifs: Ø Tout dabord, le sponsoring permet de rendre une marque crà ©dible. Il contribue à   dà ©montrer la performance technique dun service ou dun produit qui intervient directement ou indirectement à   un à ©và ©nement. Par exemple, si un champion porte des baskets Nike lors de ces victoires, les spectateurs en dà ©duisent que les baskets sont de bonne qualità ©. Ø Une entreprise utilise le sponsoring pour augmenter sa notorià ©tà © aux yeux des consommateurs, voire pour modifier son image si celle-ci est dà ©tà ©riorà ©e. Ø Enfin, le sponsoring permet de dynamiser le rà ©seau de distribution dune entreprise en dà ©veloppant des partenariats dans le but daugmenter les ventes. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? III. Concepts: mots clà ©s Ø Le marketing Les premià ¨res notions arrivent au XVIIà ¨ et XVIIIà ¨ sià ¨cles en France et en Grande-Bretagne mais cette discipline reste rà ©cente. Elle fait son apparition au milieu du XXà ¨ sià ¨cle lors de la dà ©couverte de la socià ©tà © de consommation: les entreprises se multiplient et la concurrence sintensifie. Daprà ¨s le Mercator, le marketing peut se dà ©finir comme à ©tant  «leffort dadaptation des organisations à   des marchà ©s concurrentiels, pour influencer en leur faveur le comportement des publics dont elles dà ©pendent, par une offre dont la valeur perà §ue est durablement supà ©rieure à   celle des concurrents ». Le marketing se dà ©compose en quatre composantes (le marketing-mix): la politique de produit: consiste à   concevoir, organiser et renouveler ce que lentreprise vend à   ses clients. la politique de prix: lobjectif est de rà ©duire le prix pour à ªtre le plus attractif possible. la politique de communication: permet dinfluencer les attitudes et les comportements du consommateur. la politique de distribution: proposer le produit au bon endroit, en bonne quantità © et au bon moment. Le marketing constitue donc un effort dadaptation pour influencer les consommateurs dans leur acte dachat. Il est à ©galement ce qui permet de crà ©er de la valeur sur le long terme Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Ø Le sport Cette notion est apparue au cours du XVIIIà ¨ sià ¨cle, le mot dorigine anglaise signifiant divertissement, plaisir physique et ou de lesprit. Le sport est dà ©fini comme à ©tant une actività © physique codifià ©e et rà ©glementà ©e pouvant à ªtre individuelle ou collective. Il peut soit impliquer de participer à   des compà ©titions, soit de le pratiquer sous forme de loisir comme la randonnà ©e, le và ©lo, etc. Une multitude de sports pouvant convenir à   tous, le sport est donc inscrit comme un phà ©nomà ¨ne majeur dans nos socià ©tà ©s. Si certains sports (football, basket-ball, rugby, tennis, cyclisme†¦) sont davantage mà ©diatisà ©s que certains autres (curling, escrime, pà ªche, badminton, waterpolo†¦), le sport dans son ensemble est aujourdhui devenu une  « industrie  » à   part entià ¨re. La structure sur laquelle repose cette nouvelle industrie ainsi que les opportunità ©s de consommation quelle gà ©nà ¨re là ©gitiment lapproche marketing. Enfin, grà ¢ce aux valeurs positives quil và ©hicule naturellement, le sport peut rapidement devenir un trà ¨s bon vecteur de communication institutionnelle. Ø Le marketing sportif Il sagit dune dà ©clinaison du marketing ayant pour objectif dutiliser le sport, son image et ses acteurs au profit des produits et/ou de lentreprise. Daprà ¨s Michel DESBORDES le marketing sportif peut se dà ©finir comme à ©tant  «lensemble des outils et des mà ©thodes qui utilisent de faà §on directe ou indirecte le sport, son image et ses acteurs dans le but de susciter un besoin, de commercialiser un produit/servicequi rà ©ponde à   ce besoin et de le vendre ». Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Le marketing sportif est de plus en plus utilisà © par les entreprises pour augmenter leur notorià ©tà © et/ou modifier leur image.  « Si le marketing sportif peut permettre de crà ©er de nouvelles opportunità ©s dinnovation, soit en dà ©veloppant de nouveaux usages, soit en fiabilisant de nouvelles technologies, il permet aussi une meilleure diffusion de nouveaux produits dont linnovation est de nature plus incrà ©mentale  » observent Thierry Lardinoit et Emmanuelle Le Nagard. Ø Le sponsoring En trente ans, le sponsoring a beaucoup à ©voluà © tant au niveau de sa conception, que du point de vue opà ©rationnel et stratà ©gique. Il occupe donc aujourdhui une place prà ©pondà ©rante. On peut le dà ©finir comme à ©tant une technique de communication qui consiste pour une entreprise à   contribuer financià ¨rement, matà ©riellement et/ou techniquement à   une action sociale, culturelle ou sportive, à   lentraà ®nement dun sportif, etc. Il permet ainsi daccroà ®tre la notorià ©tà © des entreprises, damà ©liorer leur image dans loptique de retirer des bà ©nà ©fices mais aussi de rendre ses produits crà ©dibles. Le sponsoring sportif consiste pour une entreprise/marque à   apporter un soutien financier ou matà ©riel à   un à ©và ©nement, une fà ©dà ©ration ou une à ©quipe sportive. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Le sponsoring sportif vise à   persuader les publics assistant à   là ©và ©nement sportif dun lien existant entre cet à ©và ¨nement (ou sportif) et lentreprise qui communique. (Gary Tribou  «Sponsoring sportif » Ø Le produit sportif Bien que celui-ci reste difficile à   dà ©finir parce quil reprà ©sente une large produit, on peut le caractà ©riser comme ayant un lien sà ©mantique fort avec la pratique sportive. On peut donc inclure les và ªtements spà ©cifiques (baskets, joggings†¦), les matà ©riaux spà ©cifiques (perche, ski, manique†¦), les boissons et les aliments à ©nergisants. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Ø La marque Elle permet au consommateur de distinguer le produit ou service dune entreprise de ceux proposà ©s par la concurrence. La marque peut à ªtre matà ©rialisà ©e par un nom propre, un mot, une expression ou un symbole visuel. Grà ¢ce à   limage qui lui est associà ©e, la marque peut aider le consommateur à   justifier ses choix et ainsi à   à ªtre valorisà ©. De plus, la marque favorise la reconnaissance sociale des produits et simplifie lacte dachat rà ©pà ©titif. Tout un ensemble de signes permettent de reconnaà ®treune marque : Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Ø Notorià ©tà © Cest un facteur pour une marque, un produit ou une entreprise qui dà ©pend de la connaissance et de son degrà © de prà ©sence dans lesprit des individus. Les deux unità ©s de mesure sont la notorià ©tà © spontanà ©e (exemple :  «Citez une marque de và ªtement de sport ») et la notorià ©tà © assistà ©e (exemple dune liste de marques de và ªtements de sport: «lesquelles connaissez-vous? ») Ø Image de marque Limage dune entreprise, dune marque ou dun produit, correspond à   la faà §on dont celles-ci sont perà §ues par les consommateurs. Cette impression peut se dà ©terminer par des crità ¨res subjectifs (exemple : un produit de jeunes) ou par des crità ¨res objectifs (exemple : limage dun produit haut de gamme à   prix à ©levà ©). Selon Aaker (1994) limage de marque  «Ãƒ ©tant un ensemble dassociations, pouvant à ªtre affectives et cognitives, et quun individu va associer à   une marque. Une image de marque va alors se construire à   travers lexpà ©rience du consommateur face à   cette marque et/ou à   travers lexposition rà ©pà ©tà ©e à   la communication de la marque. » Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? IV. Synthà ¨se provisoire de littà ©rature Daprà ¨s les articles que jai lu, traitant du marketing sportif, trois hypothà ¨ses mont paru intà ©ressant à   dà ©gager afin de dà ©limiter les contours du sujet de cette thà ¨se et afin, par la suite, daboutir à   un rà ©sultat. Hypothà ¨se 1: Le sport est populaire. Le sport a toujours existà © : sauter, courir, nager sont des actività ©s qui existent depuis le dà ©but de lhumanità ©. Puis il sest dà ©veloppà © grà ¢ce aux Jeux-Olympique dans la Grà ¨ce antique. Cest, depuis quelques annà ©es, un phà ©nomà ¨ne majeur de nos socià ©tà ©s dans les domaines à ©conomiques, culturels et sociaux. Il est important de connaà ®tre sa nature et en particulier les aspects qui peuvent justifier un tel engouement de la part des individus. En effet, le sport apparaà ®t comme populaire et joue un rà ´le important dans la mondialisation. Souvent le pays ou la ville sont connus par les exploits de son à ©quipe de sport. Selon le sociologue du sport Jacques Defrance (1997),  « le sport remplit des fonctions symboliques et produit des figures de la communautà © dappartenance, de lexcellence individuelle et de la rà ©ussite  ». C. Bromberger (1995) va jusquà   parler de socià ©tà ©  « footballisà ©e  » pour suggà ©rer que les grands à ©và ©nements sportifs tendent à   devenir des rites communautaires. Le sport et là ©ducation partagent de nombreuses valeurs communes, comme lacquisition des savoirs, savoir-à ªtre et savoir-faire. Plus prà ©cisà ©ment, le sport contribue au dà ©veloppement des compà ©tences et à   la dà ©couverte de la tolà ©rance et de lesprit dà ©quipe. Il incite à ©galement au respect des lois et des rà ¨glements. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Pour rà ©sumer, le sport contribue, tout simplement, à   lapprentissage de la vie citoyenne. Ce constat rà ©sulte dun rà ©el dà ©veloppement des actività ©s sportives, notamment pour les plus jeunes. Au-delà   de la dimension citoyenne quil incarne à   là ©cole ou encore dans les salles de sports des quartiers populaires, le sport và ©hicule des valeurs traditionnelles et morales telles que le goà »t de leffort, la loyautà © et le respect de lautre. Le sport enseigne le savoir-vivre ensemble à   toutes les personnes qui sy adonnent. Les pratiques sportives favorisent aussi les relations intergà ©nà ©rationnelles, linsertion sociale et lintà ©gration dans une socià ©tà © donnà ©e. Quil sagisse de la pratique de haut niveau ou de la pratique damateur, lenjeu sportif est majeur. Le sport amà ¨ne au dà ©passement de soi et à   là ©panouissement personnel lors des compà ©titions ou dentrainements. Les valeurs apportà ©es par le sport sont la fraternità ©, lesprit de solidarità ©, laltruisme et la gà ©nà ©rosità ©. Lesprit dà ©quipe est souvent perà §u positivement en sport : lorsque là ©quipe gagne, lindividu gagne aussi. Les individus pratiquent un sport plus quun autre selon là ¢ge et le niveau de vie. Il y a 78% des Franà §ais pratiquent une actività © physique et les taux de sportifs ne cessent daugmenter. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Tableau à ©volution des effectifs des fà ©dà ©rations (Desbordes M., Ohl F., Tribou G.  «Le marketing du sport », 2eme à ©dition, 2001). Discipline Licences en 1995 Licences en 1997 Evolution en % Canoà «-kayak Sports de glace Badminton Equitation Gymnastique Judo Golf Volley-ball Natation Athlà ©tisme Football Boxe 26 068 39 106 36 879 325 452 162 225 489074 236864 91029 167929 147932 2055610 15 488 86 072 63265 51 646 367323 182390 543016 261058 100545 179578 152769 2056684 15 484 + 233% + 62% + 40 % + 13% + 12% + 11% + 10% + 10% + 7% + 3% 0% 0% De plus, le sport est populaire par le spectacle quil offre : les individus vont regarder un match de football comme ils vont voir un chanteur sur scà ¨ne. Je ne suis pas sà »re que ce soit vraiment comparable. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Le sport est passà © de loisir à   business en quelques annà ©es, et son marchà © global en France est de 28,6 milliards dEuros. Aujourdhui, les consommateurs dà ©tournent les produits sportifs et font souvent des usages non sportifs de ces biens. Ils achà ¨tent des joggings et des baskets pour les porter tous les jours et non uniquement pour faire du sport. Seulement 46% des baskets et 34% des và ªtements sportifs sont rà ©ellement utilisà ©s pour faire du sport. Le sport nest donc plus seulement une pratique mais un à ©tat desprit et de nos jours à   une vraie  «sportisation » se met en place au sein de la socià ©tà ©. Par exemple, les hommes prà ©fà ¨rent porter des polos plutà ´t que des chemises. Quelle influence les valeurs và ©hiculà ©es par le sport ont-elles sur les consommateurs? Le sport diffuse ses valeurs propres mais il devient de plus en plus violent et dà ©passe certaines limites. Les matchs de football, par exemple, ressemblent à   un affrontement entre les supporters. Il serait donc intà ©ressant de savoir si les dà ©rives du sport nauront pas dinfluence sur le marchà ©. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Hypothà ¨se 2: Le sponsoring sportif est un support marketing pertinent. Le sponsoring sportif remonte aux temps de la Grà ¨ce et de la Rome antiques. A cette à ©poque, les individus exploitaient dà ©jà   les Jeux romains comme outil de commerce. Cà ©sar lui-mà ªme avait fait sa propre publicità © / campagne dans le but de gagner des votes en finanà §ant des combats de gladiateurs en 65 av. J.-C. Il à ©tait totalement conscient des retombà ©es que ce financement pouvait lui procurer. Les entreprises utilisent le sport comme support marketing et surtout comme outil de communication. Depuis la moitià © du XIXà ¨me, lapparition du sport moderne a permis de faire comprendre aux entreprises la puissance de communication de ce phà ©nomà ¨ne. En effet, lassociation dunemarqueou dune entreprise à   une compà ©tition, un à ©và ¨nement sportif, un club voire un sportif professionnel, permet davoir des retombà ©es mà ©diatiques importantes et donc dattirer le consommateur. Si le sponsoring existe dans le sport, cest parce quil và ©hicule des valeurs qui permettent aux marques de mettre en place des stratà ©gies pour augmenter leur notorià ©tà © et modifier ainsi leurimagede marque. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Le sport arrive en premià ¨re position à   la question  «Que parrainent les entreprises ? »: (Tableau de Westphalen M.-H. (2003), Le Communicator, Paris, Bordas, p. 347) Dans quel domaine pratiquez-vous le parrainage? Dans quel domaine envisager-vous de le pratiquer dans lavenir? Sport Culture Social-humanitaire Programmes audiovisuels Education formation Environnement Patrimoine Sciences et techniques Exploit-aventure 55% 44% 37% 30% 26% 19% 17% 13% 10% 58% 47% 40% 21% 31% 37% 17% 17% 13% Le sponsor utilise la communication par le sport pour poursuivre diffà ©rents objectifs: augmenter sa notorià ©tà © et se faire connaà ®tre du grand public en informant sur sa marque, son nom, son produit ; avoir un objectif conatif, cest-à  -dire à ªtre apprà ©cià © du public, và ©hiculer une image positive du produit, de la marque ou de lorganisation ; Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? avoir une influence sur le comportement du consommateur, linciter à   acheter, le faire venir dans le magasin ; motiver son personnel, lamener à   se rassembler autour dun mà ªme projet et donc favoriser un esprit dà ©quipe ou une culture dentreprise. Le sport est aussi un moyen datteindre un public mondial et il est adaptà © à   la rà ©alisation de divers objectifs de marketing, tels que: populariser davantage la marque et sensibiliser le public; changer le profil de la marque; ce qui veut dire? renforcer la marque / produit ; crà ©er une reconnaissance mondiale des produits ; attirer des nouveaux segments de marchà ©; dà ©velopper le rà ©seau de distribution; Le sponsoring est donc un outil marketing au service de la marque et il permet un aux consommateurs ciblà ©s de sen rapprocher. Les sponsors veulent montrer que leurs produits sont de bonne qualità © grà ¢ce à   la preuve produit: à ªtre là ©quipementier dune à ©quipe qui gagne ou le fournisseur officiel dun à ©và ©nement qui rà ©ussit prouve que le produit est crà ©dible. Par exemple, dà ¨s 1981, Michelin, offre des pneus aux coureurs cyclistes et aux pilotes dautomobiles ou encore, Festina qui assure le chronomà ©trage du Tour de France. Les sponsors doivent veiller à   revoir leurs stratà ©gies avant chaque à ©và ©nement parce quen cas de contre-performance du sportif ou de là ©quipe de sport, les ventes de la marque peuvent diminuer. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Linvestissement dans le sponsoring sportif est devenu un levier stratà ©gique de croissance pour les entreprises. Les athlà ¨tes eux-mà ªmes sont devenus, surtout depuis la  « Zidanemania  » post 1998, des icà ´nes de socià ©tà © et des porte-paroles efficaces pour les marques. Maintenant, il est difficile pour un consommateur de retenir les nombreuses marques qui sponsorisent les à ©và ©nements sportifs. Comment une marque peut-elle faire pour attirer plus encore lattention du consommateur et rester concurrentielle ? Cette question se pose aussi en ce qui concerne les marques nagissant pas dans le mà ªme secteur. Existe-il plusieurs types de sponsoring sportif? Il serait intà ©ressant, à ©galement, de savoir quels sont les retours sur investissement de natureà ©conomique mais aussi symbolique. Sur le plan à ©conomique, le sponsoring permet de faire augmenter lechiffre daffaireou la part demarchà ©de lentreprise à   plus ou moins long terme. Les indicateurs pour rà ©aliser ces calculs sont assez faciles à   mettre en place. Nà ©anmoins, la part que joue le sponsoring dans les rà ©sultats à ©conomiques est plus difficile à   dà ©terminer. Le sport và ©hicule un certain nombre de valeurs et est devenu un à ©là ©ment important dans lacte dachat du consommateur. Ainsi, sassocier à   un à ©và ¨nement sportif qui và ©hicule des valeurs positives, cest donner à   sa marque une valeur affective. Afin de calculer le rà ©el impact dun sponsor, il faut effectuer des sondages avant et aprà ¨s là ©và ¨nement. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Hypothà ¨se 3: Limage de marque est primordiale pour lentreprise. Limage permet de crà ©er de la valeur pour la marque pour diffà ©rentes raisons: aider le consommateur dans son acte dachat à   traiter linformation quil reà §oit.En effet, une image ou un logo synthà ©tise un ensemble de caractà ©ristiques. Ceci facilite la communication de lentreprise; fournir aux entreprises un avantage commercial compà ©titif et permettre à   celles-ci de se diffà ©rencier de leurs concurrents ; donner au consommateur des raisons dacheter; -dà ©velopper des attitudes positivesen associant des personnages, des symboles à   la communication de la marque ; permettre daider à   la crà ©ation dextension de marques(des traits dimage, peuvent aider une extension par la cohà ©rence existante entre la marque et le nouveau produit). Les marques utilisent les sportifs comme des leaders dopinion car ce sont les personnalità ©s les plus apprà ©cià ©es du grand public notamment pour leurs valeurs / qualità ©s humaines. Le choix de lactività © sportive par le sponsor sopà ¨re en fonction du coà »t, du temps imparti et de la concurrence. Le choix du sportif en lui-mà ªme relà ¨ve de la stratà ©gie retenue par lentreprise. On peut prendre lexemple de Lacoste et dAdidas qui sponsorisent tous les deux des tennismen. Lacoste choisit des athlà ¨tes dont la rà ©putation est dà ªtre  «sages » pour correspondre à   limage de la marque alors quAdidas va plutà ´t choisir des athlà ¨tes plus turbulents mais cosmopolites. Pour les sponsors, il est important de choisir un sportif qui và ©hicule limage de la marque. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? La popularità © des sportifs est un atout dont les publicitaires ne peuvent se passer. Les diffà ©rentes marques sponsorisent les plus grands sportifs de la planà ¨te pour vanter les mà ©rites de leurs produits. Cependant, le pouvoir mà ©diatique des sportifs est tellement important, que certaines marques utilisent leur image pour vendre des produits qui nont pas de relation directe avec le sport. Les publicitaires utilisent alors certaines des valeurs và ©hiculà ©es par le sport : courage et dà ©passement de soi, esprit collectif, dynamisme, performance et esprit de compà ©tition, etc Tony Estanguet, champion Olympique de kayac, vente alors les mà ©rites du fournisseur en à ©lectricità ©. La relation entre celui-ci et les centrales hydrauliques est pourtant loin dà ªtre à ©vidente. Nà ©anmoins, il existe un bà ©nà ©fice pour les deux parties: pour le kayakiste qui na pas les retombà ©es financià ¨res et mà ©diatiques dun footballeur et pour lannonceur qui se sert de leffet post Jeux-Olympiques. Cela apparaà ®t comme contradictoire lorsque les sportifs vantent les mà ©rites de produits qui sont dà ©conseillà ©s aux sportifs de haut niveau. Ce ne sont sà »rement pas les bonbons Haribo, Macdonald (fournisseur officiel des Jeux-Olympiques), les boissons sucrà ©es qui permettent aux sportifs dà ªtre plus forts. On peut se demander si avec la montà ©e de lobà ©sità ©, ces sponsors sont une solution. Autrefois, mà ªme les marques de tabac et dalcool à ©taient des sponsors pour des à ©quipes de sport ou des sportifs. Il est parfois hypocrite pour une marque dutiliser un produit qui est dangereux pour la santà © tout en promouvant une actività © qui donne un exemple de vie saine et convenable. Les marques dà ©jà   connues se permettent de sponsoriser un à ©và ©nement sportif, une à ©quipe de sport ou un sportif alors quelles nont rien à   voir avec le sport. En revanche, il est apparu que les marques peu connues devaient avoir un lien avec le sport. Tout dà ©pend donc de la là ©gitimità © de la marque dans lunivers du sport. Il serait intà ©ressant de savoir comment les sponsors choisissent les sportifs pour và ©hiculer les valeurs de leur marque et quels sont les facteurs clà ©s de succà ¨s. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? V. Plan provisoire I. Du sport au Marketing 1.Evolution du sport 2. Evolution du marketing 3. Le marketing sportif II. Le sponsoring sportif 1. Outil de communication 2. Les objectifs 3. Limites III. Le sponsoring sportif dans le milieu du luxe 1. Marchà © du luxe 2. Les marques de luxe et le sponsoring sportif IV. Conclusion (Pour la partie III, jaimerais lorienter en fonction de mon stage en alternance) Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? VI. Mà ©thodologie danalyse terrain Aprà ¨s avoir và ©rifià © mes hypothà ¨ses grà ¢ce à   mes lectures, je dois, à   travers des analyses quantitatives et qualitatives, les tester sur le terrain, cest-à  -dire en milieu concret. Tout dabord, avant dexpliquer la mà ©thodologie retenue, voici les dà ©finitions dune analyse qualitative, puis dune analyse quantitative. Analyse qualitative:  «Etude destinà ©e à   comprendre des attitudes ou comportement dutilisateurs, de prospects ou de clients face à   un produit, un service ou une marque, menà ©e par le biais dentretiens individuels ou collectifs en petit nombre, en rà ©coltant des informations et à ©là ©ments qualitatifs, gà ©nà ©ralement non chiffrables. » Source: http://www.marketing-etudiant.fr/definitions/e/etude-qualitative.php Analyse quantitative:  «Collecte dinformations permettant là ©tude des comportements, attentes ou opinions rà ©alisà ©e auprà ¨s dun à ©chantillon de la population et dont les rà ©sultats chiffrà ©s sont ensuite extrapolà ©s à   lensemble de la population à ©tudià ©e. » Source: http://www.marketing-etudiant.fr/definitions/e/etude-quantitative.php Dans le but de và ©rifier les trois hypothà ¨ses formulà ©es prà ©cà ©demment, jaimerais interviewer des spà ©cialistes du marketing sportif, des sponsors, des sportifs de haut-niveau et des consommateurs. Comment les marques utilisent-elles le sport comme support marketing? Pour lhypothà ¨se 1: il serait intà ©ressant de questionner une trentaine de personnes (par le biais dun questionnaire), pratiquant le sport, et qui sont à ¢gà ©es de 10 à   60 ans. Ceci me permettrait de mieux connaà ®tre leurs reprà ©sentations sur le monde du sport (savoir, par exemple, quelles sont les valeurs và ©hiculà ©es par le sport selon eux) ainsi que leurs pratiques (pourquoi ils pratiquent le sport, quel sport, à   quel frà ©quence). Les non sportifs aussi pourront à ªtre interrogà ©s afin de savoir pourquoi ils ne pratiquent pas de sport, sils regardent quand mà ªme le sport à   la tà ©là ©vision†¦ Pour lhypothà ¨se 2: Jaimerais interviewer Thierry Lardinoit, spà ©cialiste du marketing sportif. De plus, jaimerais faire des à ©tudes avant et aprà ¨s un à ©và ©nement sportif pour calculer le rà ©el retour sur investissement dune marque qui le sponsorise. Je pense quil serait aussi intà ©ressant davoir lavi